Three Liturgies and Their Antiquity. – Preparation of the Eucharistic Elements. – The Legend of the Holy Bread. – Mixing the Chalice. – Communion of the People. – A Syro-Chaldean Homily on Communion. – Confession and Absolution. – Baptism and Chrismation. – Names and Surnames. – Burial of the Dead. – Cemeteries. – Ablution After Burial. – Monuments

Although, from a theological standpoint, baptism precedes communion, in the Syro-Chaldean rite the order is reversed. Baptism is always administered at the conclusion of the liturgy; and in the priestly service-book (the Takhsa) the rite of baptism is placed after the three liturgies. Following this order, we shall first describe communion.

Among the Syro-Chaldeans the liturgy is celebrated comparatively rarely—usually only on the principal feasts in honor of the Savior and the most celebrated saints, particularly on the eve of Christmas, on Christmas Day itself, on the feast of Theophany, on the Wednesday of the public fast of the Ninevites, three times during Lent, on Palm Sunday, on Holy Thursday, on the eve of Pascha, on Pascha itself, on Ascension Day, on Pentecost, on the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (September 14), and perhaps also on the feast of St. Thomas (July 3), the Dormition of the Most Holy Mary (August 15), Mar-Shimun Barsebai, and two or three others, as well as on the feast of the patron saint of the church. In very many village churches the liturgy is celebrated even less frequently; on the other hand, in certain churches in the mountains it is regularly celebrated every Sunday. The liturgy always begins early, with the exception of fast days, when communion takes place late—often even in the afternoon—so that everyone may fast as long as possible; and of course no one will touch food before receiving communion. By rule, the liturgy must be preceded by vespers, nocturns, and matins, and no priest or deacon may take part in the service unless he has also attended these three offices. In practice, however, to avoid a long interval between the end of matins and the beginning of the liturgy, the celebrant and one of the deacons bake the bread and prepare the chalice while the rest perform the morning prayer.

By rule, only one liturgy may be celebrated in a church on a given day. But sometimes during Great Lent in the Tiari region two liturgies are celebrated: one early in the morning for children, who cannot go long without food, and another in the afternoon for adults, who are required not to touch food until they have received communion. A priest who serves several churches may, at least in the mountains, celebrate the liturgy two or three times in a day on such feasts as Pascha or Christmas, once in each village.

The Syro-Chaldeans possess three liturgies, attributed to the Apostles—Mar-Addai, one of the Seventy, and his disciple Mar-Mari, who were the “enlighteners of the East”—to Theodore the Interpreter, and to Nestorius. It is extremely improbable that the last two were composed by these individuals, since they contain not the slightest hint of Nestorianism, and moreover they are of purely East Syrian origin and differ markedly in structure from the liturgies used in Mopsuestia and Constantinople. It is true that the third liturgy bears many marks of Constantinopolitan influence, but this can be explained by the fact that some Syro-Chaldean author, in composing his liturgy, had before him a Constantinopolitan liturgy and drew on it for guidance. In earlier centuries the remote Syro-Chaldeans maintained frequent contact with the Greeks, as can be seen from the multitude of Greek words—especially ecclesiastical words—that entered their language. And this occurred not only in the earliest centuries, but also at a time when words such as patriarch, metropolitan, archdeacon, sub-deacon, and others could have been adopted. It is probable, therefore, that sometime during the fourth or early fifth century, certain learned Syro-Chaldeans—of whom at least one had access to Greek liturgies—composed these liturgies, which are known under the names of both Theodore and Nestorius. It is extremely improbable that they arose after the emergence of the Nestorian heresy, and it is almost impossible that the Patriarch of Constantinople, who presumably knew nothing of the liturgy of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, could have composed part of a liturgy along lines so unlike anything to which he was accustomed. However, the similarity of the third liturgy to that of Basil the Great may suffice to explain why it is attributed to Nestorius. The common explanation is that the third liturgy is the genuine work of Nestorius, and that the East Syrians, finding it so similar to their own liturgy, immediately concluded that its author must be orthodox and took his side.

This historical sketch coincides with the popular belief concerning the origin of the various liturgies. Each apostle, according to popular tradition, composed a distinct liturgy for the region in which he labored, and so there are reckoned to be precisely twelve Christian peoples. At the end of the world, the apostles or the heads of the churches will all assemble again in Jerusalem and compare their liturgies, and the one that proves the best will become the liturgy of the whole world! It is not difficult to guess which one, in the Syro-Chaldean view, will receive that honor.

The ancient liturgy of the Christians of St. Thomas—the so-called Malabar Christians—belongs to this rite and is, in fact, simply a revised edition of the liturgy of the Syro-Chaldean apostles. This shows how far the missionary activity of Seleucia once extended. But Mar-Shimun no longer has any adherents in India; the Christians there are either Roman Catholics or Jacobites. The present Mar-Shimun ordained a bishop, or metropolitan as he was called, for India, but it is not known what became of him.

Of the three liturgies, the first—the so-called Liturgy of the Apostles—is used on all ordinary days and, generally speaking, at all times except Sundays from the beginning of the Nativity Fast through Palm Sunday inclusive, when the second liturgy, attributed to Theodore of Mopsuestia, is used; while the third, attributed to Nestorius, is celebrated on five days of the year: the feast of Theophany, the feast of St. John the Baptist, the day of the so-called Greek Teachers, the Wednesday of the fast of the Ninevites, and Holy Thursday—all of which fall between Christmas and Pascha.

The Syro-Chaldeans prepare the materials for Holy Communion with particular care. They attach special significance to the continuity of the Eucharist through the unity of the bread used for it. Every time bread is prepared for the Eucharist, it is leavened not only with a portion of dough from the last baking, as is done with all bread, but also with a small portion of the holy leaven, which has been handed down from age to age in every church. There even exists a particular tradition concerning this leaven, which, according to popular belief, was transmitted to the Syro-Chaldeans by the founders of their church, Mar-Addai and Mar-Mari. The following is what is said on this subject in an ancient manuscript.

“At the baptism of our Lord, St. John collected the water that flowed from His body into a vessel, and before His death gave it to His disciple, John the son of Zebedee, to keep until it should be needed. At the Last Supper the Savior gave a morsel to each of His disciples, but to St. John He gave two and commanded him to eat one and to preserve the other for the holy leaven. When a soldier pierced the side of the Lord on the cross, water and blood came forth, and John saw them; the blood is the sign of the mysteries of the body and blood which are in the church, and the water is the sign of the regeneration of the faithful. John alone observed the separation of the blood and water; he received the blood on the morsel he had preserved from the Pascha, and the water in the vessel given him by John the Baptist. After the descent of the Holy Spirit, the disciples remembered that the Lord had commanded them during the forty days to prepare the leaven which they had taken from His body; they took the baptismal vessel and mixed olive oil with it, and each one took from it a horn of the oil used at baptism; and the morsel that had been steeped in the Savior’s blood they ground into pieces, mixed with flour and salt, and divided among themselves, that it might serve for ever as the leaven of the body and blood of Christ in the church.”

This leaven is renewed from time to time by means of a special rite performed by the priest and deacon on Holy Thursday; what remains in the vessel is mixed with dough, salt, and olive oil and leavens the whole, and without this leaven no Eucharist can be celebrated. The Syro-Chaldeans relate that the reason why the “Westerners” hate Nestorius is that when he fled from Constantinople he took the leaven with him and left them with nothing! Some writers regard this leaven as a sacrament in itself, but there is no agreement among the Syro-Chaldeans as to the number of sacraments. Some count only two sacraments—baptism and communion. Others count seven, adding to the two principal sacraments holy orders, the holy leaven, absolution, unction, and the sign of the cross. Chrismation forms an inseparable part of baptism.

The bread and wine are prepared before the liturgy begins, and only when everything is ready are the blows of the semantron sounded and the people begin to gather—though they are not in a hurry to come at the very beginning of the service; most arrive only halfway through, with the men standing in front and the women behind. After the consecration of the gifts the actual communion takes place; the priest who has celebrated, together with his first deacon, comes out of the altar into the sanctuary, and the people approach for communion. When giving a portion of the holy bread to a priest, the celebrant says: “The body of our Lord to the humble priest, for the remission of sins.” When giving it to a deacon he says: “To the deacon of God,” and to a layman: “To the watchful believer.” The people receive holy communion either in the hand or directly in the mouth. There are no particular rules in the typikon in this regard. At the same time, another deacon goes to the opening in the low door on the north side and administers communion from the chalice, saying: “The precious blood for the remission of sins, spiritual food for eternal life, to the humble priest, or to the deacon of God, and to each according to his rank.” All the devout wipe their lips after communion with the colored cloth offered by the deacon. Men communicate first, followed by women. It is a touching sight to see how earnestly the little children are brought forward for communion. Those who can barely walk are led by their parents or brothers, while infants are carried in their mothers’ arms, in fulfillment of the commandment of Him who said: “Forbid not the children to come unto Me.” Children receive communion under both kinds at once from the priest, who gives them the bread dipped in the chalice for this purpose, and they do not afterward receive from the chalice separately. The scene is not particularly edifying when, on great feasts and on the days of popular saints, the church is overcrowded and there is much pushing and even struggling to be the first to come forward for communion. But it must be said that this people is devout in its own way, even if its devotion does not always express itself in solemn silence. In general the service is characterized by considerable beauty that involuntarily strikes every outside observer.

Since communion takes a considerable amount of time, the service continues independently of it. One cannot but regret, however, that the majority of communicants leave the church before the service is over. Having communicated, they receive from the priest or deacon a portion of the holy bread, or antidoron, and then leave the church. After several prayers and blessings, the kiss of peace is exchanged and the veil is drawn, after which the priest and deacon themselves proceed to receive communion.

After the service, homilies or sermons are sometimes delivered, and the following sermon by a young Syro-Chaldean deacon may serve as an example:

“First of all, brethren, let us ask ourselves: what is the holy oblation? Answer: it is the offering of a sacrifice to God. 2) Let us now consider from what time it began. We read that it was performed from the time of Adam; for the Bible says: ‘They made themselves girdles of skins and put them on.’ Likewise Noah offered sacrifice after the flood, as did Abraham and all the fathers down to the time of the children of Israel, as is known to all. For we read that they offered a lamb entirely clean and without blemish. This they did twice, while some others were called perpetual sacrifices (?). The priest did this for expiation and sprinkled with the blood of the sacrifice those who had sinned. But this sacrifice could not fully save men, for it was for us only a type, given so that men would not remain idle (without sacrifices); but when Christ came, He replaced it with His own body and blood, and He was that perfect sacrifice which was offered on the cross.

“Our Lord, on the night in which He was betrayed, took bread, blessed it and said: ‘This is My body of the new covenant in My blood (sic), which is broken for you.’ And likewise, taking the blood—that is, the wine—He said: ‘This is My blood of the new covenant, shed for you; do this in remembrance of Me.’ This is what the apostles always did, for St. Paul says: ‘As often as you eat this bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes.’ So we perform this mystery for our sins, that we may be cleansed. 3) Let us ask ourselves: where should this sacrifice be offered? Answer: in the church, which has been consecrated by apostolic consecration (literally: laying on of hands). 4) Who should perform it? Bishops and priests who have been ordained by apostolic ordination. 5) What materials are needed? The finest wheat flour and grape wine must be used, as it is written: ‘I will not drink of this fruit of the vine until I drink it new in the kingdom of God.’ 6) Who consecrates the mystery? God the Holy Spirit. Two signs descend upon this mystery—one an invisible grace which cannot be seen, and one which can be seen, because it transforms the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. And I believe that a man who receives it with a pure heart and faith will not receive condemnation, but will pass from death to life. It is necessary for Christians to prepare themselves for this mystery and to repent of their sins. Amen.”

The rite of baptism in the Syro-Chaldean service belongs to a later period than the liturgies, on the model of which it was composed. It contains a consecration of oil and water, and the anointing and baptism correspond to communion under both kinds, while the general character and structure of the service is almost identical in both cases. Baptism is administered by triple immersion, the priest dipping the child in the font and saying first: “N is baptized in the name of the Father” (response: “Amen”), and the second time: “in the name of the Son” (response: “Amen”), and the third: “in the name of the Holy Spirit, for ever. Amen” (response: “Amen”). The priest immerses the child in the water up to the neck, places his hand on the child’s head, and hands the child to the deacon, who dresses the child in white garments and gives the child to the godparents, who complete the clothing but leave the head uncovered until the mystery of chrismation is performed. This mystery is administered by the laying on of hands, and colored garlands are placed on the child’s head, as at the celebration of the sacrament of marriage.

Although the rite of baptism closely resembles the liturgy, the kiss of peace is not prescribed for it, even though the Syro-Chaldeans in general attach great importance to this rite. The kiss of peace at baptism is mentioned by St. Cyprian, Blessed Augustine, and St. John Chrysostom, but nothing is said of it in the Syro-Chaldean rite of baptism. Yet at the place where it would be expected by analogy with the liturgy, we read the words “Peace be with you,” to which the response is given: “And with you, and with your spirit,” as in the other service; and perhaps this very fact indicates that the kiss of peace ought to take place at this point, even though there is no express direction to that effect. Another peculiarity is that newly baptized children are not given communion. The Armenians communicate children from the reserved gifts immediately upon the completion of the rite of baptism, even though baptism may be administered at any hour of the day; the Syro-Chaldeans, however, do not communicate children, although one might expect them to do so, since their baptism is performed immediately after the liturgy.

It should be noted that at baptism no questions are put to the godparents and no promises are required of them, although they do recite the creed. Each child has a godfather and a godmother, and these godparents serve also as witnesses when their godchildren enter into marriage. A woman, upon marrying, renounces her own godfather and godmother and takes on those of her husband. This descends from father to son. Thus, for example, if A and his wife were godparents to B (a boy), they will also be godparents to B’s children; or if A and his wife die, the son of A and his wife will be godparents to B’s children, and so on. In this way godfather and godmother are always taken from the same family, though in practice they are not always husband and wife. Both by custom and by canon, the relationship of godparents to their godchildren is regarded as a close kinship and therefore constitutes an impediment to marriage. The bond between a godfather and his godson is the most intimate and endures throughout their lives; and the very word for godparent in the vernacular means “a close person.”

It may be noted in passing that the Syro-Chaldeans always keep their infants wrapped in swaddling clothes, with a bonnet placed on the child’s head. One cannot say in general that they know how to make their children look particularly attractive. They also have a curious custom of salting newborns, which is said to be very beneficial to their health. This custom is alluded to by the prophet Ezekiel when he speaks of the swaddling of infants (Ezek. 16:4).

Baptism at home is now no longer permitted; it may be administered only in a church after the liturgy. If there is no church in the village, the child must be carried to another village that has one. In some churches, however, baptism is not administered—as, for example, in the old church at Iyale on the Turkish-Persian border, from where children are sent for baptism to the large church of Mar-Bishu in the valley below. Consequently, considerable obstacles to the baptism of children are frequently encountered, and children not infrequently die without this sacrament. But since the people regard baptism with the utmost reverence, there is not much danger of a child growing up without being baptized. Such cases do of course occur sometimes, but when they come to light, baptism is administered even to adults. Under ordinary circumstances baptism is performed in childhood. A learned priest, when asked what he would do if a child were dying unbaptized and no church was nearby, replied that he would make the sign of the cross over the child in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is indeed what is done in such cases, though there is no mention of it in the books. If after this the child recovers, it is taken to a church and baptized by the full rite; if not, “all hope is placed in the mercy of God.”

In some places children are signed with the sign of the cross a few days after birth, even when there is no immediate danger. This act is considered of the utmost importance, and at the same time a name is given to the child. Great efficacy is attributed to this signing, and it is regarded as something of a mysterious rite. At times even Muslims of the Urmia plain, who generally hold the old Christian churches in considerable reverence, bring their children to be signed on some feast day—not at all because they wish to become Christians, but simply because they look upon the sign of the cross as a kind of charm which, in their view, may prove beneficial to the child.

Children are for the most part given biblical names. When their Eastern pronunciation is softened somewhat, these names are very melodious. The most common names are: Abner, Absalom, Zechariah, Jeremiah, Jonah, John, Gabriel, Moses, Abimelech, Jesse, Jesus, Benjamin, Reuben, Isaac, Joseph, Solomon, Simon, Thomas, and others. The prevalence of biblical names has been cited by one scholar, not without reason, in support of his theory that the Syro-Chaldeans constitute a remnant of the ten tribes of Israel. Names borrowed from Christian saints are also in use—for example, George, Urmizd (a celebrated monk)—as well as several Muslim names such as Rashid, Mansur, and Ablakhat. Among the names one frequently encounters compound names of the type Hnabishu, meaning “Mercy of Jesus,” Saurishu—“Hope of Jesus,” Audishu—“Servant of Jesus.” Less common are names such as Dadishu—“Uncle of Jesus,” and Ishoyyav—“Jesus gave.” The name of the Savior, Isho (Jesus), is one of the most common men’s names, and among the people it is not at all considered irreverent to bear it. In some districts a person born on a particular feast day receives the name of that day. Thus, a person born on Sunday receives the name Khoshaba (that is, Sunday, or the first day), or Yomaran (Day of our Lord); one born on the feast of Theophany receives the name Dinkha (Sunrise—the ancient name of this feast); on Palm Sunday—Hosanna; on the Transfiguration—Gilyana (Revelation), and so on. In the books we encounter many curious compound names of the kind “Glory to Jesus,” “Glory to God,” “Glory to our Lord,” “God has sought,” “Son of the Church,” “Son of the Monastery,” “Son of the Martyrs,” “Jesus had mercy on her,” “Jesus is our Hope,” and so forth. But these names are no longer used today. Women’s names are for the most part borrowed from Muslims and denote flowers and the like; but the most common name is Mariam, after the Most Holy Theotokos; the names Elizabeth, Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and others drawn from the Bible are also found. When a boy bears the same name as his grandfather, he is called, at least in the Urmia plain, not by his own name during the old man’s lifetime, but simply Baba; and this name often stays with him throughout his life and becomes the most current of all the names mentioned; but such a name is not given at baptism. A son can never bear the same name as his father. Epithets are frequently used, and if it is necessary to distinguish two persons of the same name, one adds to the name “son of so-and-so,” or appends the name of his trade or village; but the surname by father’s name or trade has not yet developed into a fixed family name. One Syro-Chaldean, upon hearing that all members of a family in Europe bear the same family name, said: “But how do you tell them apart from one another?” When it was explained to him what names and surnames are used there, he found it extremely confusing; and when he was told that some people (in Spain, France, Germany) have up to half a dozen names or more, he considered this the height of foolishness.

In some cases, especially in the mountains, an entire family or even a whole clan is known by the same name. Thus, in the village of Tkuma the members of the priestly family are distinguished from one another only by being called: such-and-such from the house of the priest.

The burial rite of the Syro-Chaldeans makes a deep impression on those with access to the ancient Syriac language. It is contained in two books called the Kurasta and the Anida. There are separate services for the burial of patriarchs, metropolitans, bishops, priests, deacons, laymen, women, and children. The full celebration of the burial rite for clergy lasts at least five hours.

Burial in a hot country must of necessity take place as soon as possible after death. Immediately upon death, special messengers are sent to all who knew the deceased; carpenters begin to make the coffin, which they produce within a few hours; and if the village is not far from the city of Urmia, a ready-made coffin is brought from the market, differing from Muslim coffins only by a small cross made of silver paper on the lid. In the mountains, however, when a poor man dies, the business is managed without a coffin: a grave is simply dug out and lined on the sides with flat stones. Into this stone tomb the body, properly wrapped and covered with garments, is laid; and while the service is still going on, the grave is closed with a flat stone on top and earth is thrown in until the entire grave is covered.

While preparations for burial are being made, mournful scenes take place in the house throughout. Women gather in crowds and, wailing with grief, tear their hair. Even strong men not infrequently give way to loud weeping. Loud lamentation is considered a tribute to the deceased, and the people, who are by nature sensitive, give themselves over at such times to the most unrestrained grief, even if the deceased had not been particularly beloved in his lifetime. At the sight of this scene one can imagine the scene in the house of Jairus, where the flute-players and the crowd made such noise and commotion that the Savior bade them withdraw. One is involuntarily struck by the thought that this people has not fully grasped the meaning of Christian death, any more than it has grasped the words of Christ: “The maiden has not died, but sleeps.” This same loud lamentation was undoubtedly the custom from the most ancient times. Abraham came to mourn for Sarah and to weep over her (Gen. 23:2). This did not simply mean that he grieved and could not restrain his tears. He came expressly to mourn her and to grieve over her, as though paying a tribute of love and respect to his departed wife. And when he himself died and his sons Isaac and Ishmael came to bury him, there was undoubtedly much grief and lamentation on that occasion too. Such also was David’s lamentation for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17), and the lamentation of Joseph and the Egyptians for Jacob, on account of which the very place was called Abel-Mizraim—the place of weeping (Gen. 50:11). But such expressions of grief could easily degenerate into empty formality, and therefore it was found necessary even in ancient times to enact canons against their abuse. The Syrian Sunhadus forbids women to bring pagan mourners to lament over the dead, on pain of excommunication; men are equally prohibited from doing so.

There are particular rules for washing the bodies of the dead. In the case of monks, nuns, bishops, metropolitans, and catholikoi, only the head, hands, and feet are to be washed; but after the death of ordinary priests and laymen the entire body may be washed. The body of the patriarch must be washed by bishops. The body of a layman is washed by “grey beards” known for their seriousness and goodness, and the body of a woman by elderly women held in respect.

The coffin is carried from the house on a bier. The burial service for a layman is rarely held in the church, and this is perfectly understandable given that the church door is only one, measuring barely three square feet, and moreover must be entered by a stairway, making it extremely difficult to bring a body inside. Consequently, the burial service in church is conducted mostly over clergy. After the service, the procession proceeds directly to the grave, with the priests and deacons walking in front, chanting church hymns antiphonally, many of which are of remarkable beauty. The cemetery is usually situated outside the village and rarely near the church. No one may be buried in the church itself except martyrs, whose bones the book Sunhadus prescribes to be “laid up in churches for the aid of the needy.” But in the summer chapel adjoining the church “bishops may be buried, and monks may be buried in a special cemetery within the monastery”—such as, for example, the small and beautiful chapel in the Jacobite monastery of Mar-Matay (St. Matthew) near Mosul, where the remains of the great Gregory Bar Hebraeus rest.

Funeral processions in Urmia have much in common with wedding processions. In both cases drums are beaten and the sound of horns is heard; perhaps these same instruments are meant in the account of the mourning for the daughter of Jairus. Many carry large tree branches adorned with scarves and apples. At the burial, the horse of the deceased follows the coffin, bearing his garments on an empty saddle. It sometimes happens that a person leaps into the grave, beats his breast, and lets out the most mournful cries. When the coffin is lowered into the grave and covered with flat stones, everyone considers it their duty to throw at least a handful of earth into the grave. When all is finished, the relatives stand on one side of the grave, and all present offer them their condolences, giving “healing to their heads.” Each person present, as he passes, touches the hands of the mourning relatives and says: “May it be well with your head.”

In many places there exists a curious custom of washing after defilement through contact (even if only metaphorical) with a dead body. Upon leaving the cemetery, everyone goes to the river, and after some prayers the water is blessed with the sign of the cross, and all wash their faces and hands. This custom has already fallen out of use in the Urmia plain, though traces of it are still found here and there. After the burial the people often go to the house of the deceased, where a funeral meal is laid out for them, at which everyone again wishes “healing to the heads” of the relatives.

At the burial of clergy, the body is usually brought into the church, where the full burial rite—and sometimes a liturgy—is performed over it. The bier of priests is placed in the vestibule of the church, and only the body of the patriarch may be brought into the sanctuary as far as the chandelier. It is borne by bishops and priests. According to some accounts, the bier of a metropolitan may be brought into the sanctuary, but no further than the place where the body of the patriarch is brought. Members of all ranks of the episcopate are buried in their liturgical vestments.

Among the Syro-Chaldeans the custom of a final farewell kiss with the deceased is also fully preserved. This custom is very ancient, and it is mentioned already by St. Ambrose. Before the body is placed in the grave, all take their leave of the deceased. Priests, deacons, and laymen all pass in turn beside the bier and kiss the hand of the deceased, or sometimes the cross laid on his chest, and then take their place in a line at the head of the grave; those who had been standing behind come forward in their turn, and thus all perform this final “kiss of peace.”

On the second and third days, special consolatory services are held for the bereaved, and on other days commemorations of the departed are likewise held. The divine liturgy is celebrated, the relatives distribute alms, and after the liturgy all present are invited by the relatives to a meal. The book Sunhadus states that in olden times these commemorations were held on the third and ninth day, and, in accordance with the apostolic canons, on the thirtieth day and at the end of the year. But according to the most prevalent custom, they were held on the third and seventh day. The martyrs are commemorated annually. Commemorations for departed friends and saints may be held on any day, whether Sunday or ordinary, even several commemorations together, excepting only the festal days of the Lord: Christmas, Theophany, Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Pascha, Ascension, Pentecost, and the Exaltation of the Holy Cross; as well as the two feasts of the Apostles (of the Seventy and of the Twelve, on the seventh Friday and Sunday after Pentecost) and the day of the consecration of the church—three Sundays before the Nativity Fast.

Gravestones are often made from simple rough blocks of stone heaped directly on the graves. Wealthier people, however, place on the grave an elegantly carved square stone in the form of a box. Many such monuments are found in the Urmia plain. Inscriptions are usually made in ornate lettering and almost always in the ancient Syriac language. They rarely contain more than the name and rank of the deceased and the day on which he “rested.” The age of the deceased is sometimes added, if it is known at all. The Syro-Chaldeans keep no proper records of births, deaths, and marriages, and scarcely anyone knows exactly their own age or the ages of their children, even while they are still young.

The gravestone is sometimes given the form of a ram—something often found on ancient Christian monuments generally. St. Ambrose says that this form was used as a symbol of the Word even by those who deny the coming of Christ, and in the fleece of the ram he finds the symbol of “being clothed with our heavenly dwelling” (2 Cor. 5:2); in the ram’s protection of the flock against wolves—the symbol of Christ’s victory over Satan; in its guidance of the flock—the symbol of divine guidance; in its substitution for Isaac at the sacrifice—the symbol of sacrifice; and in its silence before the shearer (Isa. 53:7)—the symbol of Christ’s meekness. The ram is also sometimes found on Muslim cemeteries in the Urmia plain, but the Syro-Chaldeans say this occurs only in those cases where the cemetery was originally Christian. They appear to have preserved no tradition concerning the meaning of this symbol, and they do not now often make gravestones of this kind; but they see in it a sign of great honor, and among them there survives the proverb: “I will place a ram on your head,” meaning: “I will show you great honor.”