Introduction
The Pastoral Epistles and their significance
The authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles
The recipients of the Pastoral Epistles
The content of the Pastoral Epistles
When the Pastoral Epistles were written
Literature on the Pastoral Epistles
The Pastoral Epistles and their significance
The two epistles of the Apostle Paul to Timothy and the epistle to Titus are called the Pastoral Epistles, because they contain the instructions of the Apostle Paul to these two aforementioned disciples concerning what church shepherds should be like and what their activity in the Church should consist of. These instructions were intended by the Apostle Paul not only for Timothy and Titus, but also for shepherds of all subsequent times. The Church of Christ has always drawn from these epistles the rules and guidelines for organizing the pastoral activity of her ministers, and regarded these epistles as a handbook for shepherds. Especially important are these epistles in that they provide a fully definite conception that the Church of Christ consists of two elements — shepherds who govern the life of the Church, and the flock following the shepherds. From this we have full reason to conclude that the hierarchical structure of the Church is not something introduced from outside, appearing in the Church in the second century or even later, as some sectarians think, but existed in it from the beginning of its life.
The authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles
Protestant theologians long ago began to express doubt about the authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles, which by their content certainly refuted the understanding that had developed in Protestantism about the later origin of church hierarchy. The doubt was expressed most sharply by the well-known Baur in his work “The So-Called Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul” (1835). In Baur’s opinion, the heresy refuted in the Pastoral Epistles is the Gnosticism of the 2nd century, and the church organization depicted in them is the church organization also of the 2nd century. Baur’s views were substantiated and developed by Holtzmann in the work “The Pastoral Epistles” (1880). According to Holtzmann’s understanding, the Pastoral Epistles appeared in the middle of the second century, when the Church on one hand was torn apart by the struggle of various false teachings, and on the other was persecuted by the Roman pagan government. Among Christians of that time a strong need was felt for an indisputable church authority, for a strong church unifying power, and so in response to such a request epistles appeared, written in the name of Paul and affirming in the Church the authority of shepherds as leaders of the church community. Thus, according to Holtzmann, Timothy and Titus are fictitious persons, and Paul could not be the author of the Pastoral Epistles, because he did not struggle with the false knowledge which is refuted in the Pastoral Epistles, and did not implement in his life the principles which are established in these epistles. Such a supposition about the later origin of the Pastoral Epistles with similar reasoning is also expressed in the twentieth century that has begun (see for example the commentary on the Pastoral Epistles of Franz Keller in “The Writings of the New Testament” edited by J. Weiss, 1908).
But all objections against the authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles do not withstand criticism. First of all, the critics are wrong, and especially Julicher, in pointing out that in the Pastoral Epistles the circumstances of church life and its organization are depicted quite differently than in the genuine epistles of the Apostle Paul (which critics regard as the epistles to the Romans, Corinthians and Galatians) and in the book of Acts. If according to 1 Cor 12-14 the religious needs of the church are satisfied by charismatic teachers, and in the Pastoral Epistles by definite persons appointed by the Apostle, then this cannot serve as a basis for recognizing the Pastoral Epistles as inauthentic, because such appointed persons are mentioned also in the book of Acts (Acts 14:23). Moreover, in the Pastoral Epistles the terms “bishop” and “presbyter” are still used in the same sense (in some places), just as these two terms are used in the same sense in the book of Acts (Acts 14:23 cf. Acts 20:28) and in the epistle to the Philippians (Phil 1:1). It is not at all surprising that in the Pastoral Epistles the institution of widows and deaconesses appears as fully established, which supposedly could not have been in the days of Paul. As one can conclude from the epistles to Timothy, Christianity in Ephesus had already become established — before the epistles to Timothy were written, it had existed in the Ephesian community for more than ten years. Could not various questions about deaconesses have arisen in the Ephesian church during such a period of time, questions which the Apostle resolves in the (first) epistle to Timothy? In just the same way, the Apostle Paul could have used certain special rites of ordination to sacred offices in Ephesus, something which, in the opinion of critical scholars, could supposedly be done only in the second century.
No less frivolously does negative criticism proceed when it declares that the false teachings refuted in the Pastoral Epistles are of later origin, that this is nothing other than the well-known “gnosis” of the second century. The fact is that in the Pastoral Epistles the term “gnosis” is nowhere used as a technical term to designate the heresy of Gnosticism. If Paul here refutes “knowledge,” he understands by it the same knowledge overstepping its bounds, human learning, which he has in mind also in his other epistles (for example, in the epistle to the Corinthians and to the Colossians).
In the Pastoral Epistles, “gnosis” is not given its most characteristic feature — the distinction between the God of the Old Testament and the God of the New Testament. It is important to note also the circumstance that in the Pastoral Epistles the “myths” and “genealogies” which the Apostle has in mind are called “Jewish” ones (Titus 1:14). This testifies that the gnosis which the Apostle Paul denounces does not resemble the pagan gnosis of the second century. Finally, the false teachers mentioned in the Pastoral Epistles still belong to the church, with the exception of Hymenaeus and Alexander, while the Gnostic sects of the 2nd century had already separated from the church and were thought of as enemies of it. One can say with certainty: the false teachers denounced in the Pastoral Epistles combined in themselves Jewish legalism and observance of traditions, interpreted the law of Moses in a rabbinical way, thought to extract special secrets from the Torah, while at the same time denigrating the teaching about the grace of Christ that saves all people. They also paid special attention to the distinction between clean and unclean foods and strove to emphasize the importance of asceticism. But at the same time they were not unfamiliar with greed.
They also point out that the language of the Pastoral Epistles differs very greatly from the language of Paul’s other epistles. But, first, the differences in language between the two are really not so great as to be striking, and, second, why could not the Apostle Paul somewhat change the manner of expression of his thoughts in his later epistles? Similar changes in language are observed also in some great writers — for example, Luther, Klopstock, Schiller, Goethe. The Apostle Paul too, at the end of his life, must have become closely acquainted with the Latin language (during his imprisonment in Caesarea and in Rome), and this must have had an influence also on his Greek speech, since his maternal, native and unforgettable language was Hebrew, not Greek: the latter, as learned by him already in his youth, could easily undergo change under the pressure of a new language — Latin.
In general, all objections of negative criticism against the authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles are highly unfounded. As for the historical evidence about the origin of these epistles from the Apostle Paul, there is quite sufficient evidence. Thus already Polycarp, in his epistle to the Philippians, demonstrates acquaintance with the first epistle to Timothy (1 Tim 4:1 and 1 Tim 6:10 and 1 Tim 6:7 and other places). Repetitions of expressions from the Pastoral Epistles are found in Barnabas, Clement, Hegesippus, Irenaeus and other ancient fathers and teachers of the Church. Strange only it seems that the well-known heretic Marcion (2nd century) did not mention these epistles in his canon of New Testament books. But even this circumstance should not greatly disturb us: in this case Marcion could have been guided by the consideration that the Pastoral Epistles were written to individual persons, not to whole churches (he did mention the epistle to Philemon, perhaps because it was attached to some other epistle, for example to the epistle to the Colossians).
The recipients of the Pastoral Epistles
Timothy. From the book of Acts it is known that Paul, in the company of Silas, during his second missionary journey, that is, around the year 52, took as his disciple the young Timothy, a resident of the city of Lystra, who probably converted to Christianity at Paul’s first visit to that city. Paul calls him a “beloved and faithful son in the Lord” (1 Cor 4:17), his “true son in the faith” (1 Tim 1:2). It is evident that when Timothy entered the circle of Paul’s companions, he received baptism and made “a good confession of his faith” before witnesses (1 Tim 6:12). From 2 Timothy (2 Tim 1:5) we learn the name of Timothy’s mother — Eunice, and the name of his grandmother — Lois, who were both good Christians from among the Israelites. Eunice, and possibly also Lois, converted to Christianity during the Apostle Paul’s first journey through Galatia. Timothy, standing under the influence of his mother — his father was a Greek — also apparently at that time accepted the true faith, probably prompted by the teaching and miracles of the Apostle. As a Greek, it was not difficult for him to free himself from attachment to the law of Moses, in which he had been raised by his mother and grandmother, and Paul found in him a suitable helper in all things. However, in order not to cause the Jews living in that region to stumble, he circumcised Timothy. After this, preaching ministry was laid upon Timothy in Lystra itself, with the performance of prayers and the laying on of hands of the church elders and first and foremost of the Apostle Paul himself. And the local Christian prophets predicted to Timothy success in his ministry.
After this Timothy set out for Europe with Paul and Silas. In Troas Luke joined this preaching circle. In Greece Timothy rendered many services to the Apostle Paul in his relations with the churches of Thessalonica and Corinth, to which the Apostle sent Timothy as a man who enjoyed special trust there. However difficult it was to calm the troubled Corinthians, Timothy achieved this and received approval from Paul (1 Cor 16:10 and following). Timothy thus until the year 58 was with Paul, as is evident from the notes of the apostle’s epistles appearing before that year, and then for many years he disappears from our view. Then mentions of Timothy are found in the epistles to the Colossians and Philippians, written by Paul from Rome (his first imprisonment). Paul wishes to send the Timothy with him to Philippi, so that his faithful disciple might bring him the most precise information about the condition of the church of Philippi, so dear to Paul (Phil 2:19 and following). From the epistle to the Hebrews (Heb 13:23) it is evident that Timothy was also in imprisonment, but later received his freedom. To what time this imprisonment belongs is unknown. From the 1st epistle to Timothy it is evident that at the time of writing this epistle he was in Ephesus. Church tradition says that Timothy was a bishop in Ephesus (Eusebius, Church History 3.4.5), that he remained long in communion with the Apostle John and under the emperor Nerva, in the proconsulate of Peregrinus (97 AD) on January 22, suffered martyrdom. In 356 his remains were transferred to Constantinople.
Titus. The book of Acts tells nothing about this coworker of the Apostle Paul. The first mention of him is found in the epistle to the Galatians (Gal 2:1) and then the next in 2 Corinthians (2 Cor 2:13 and following; 2 Cor 8:6). As is evident from the epistle to the Galatians, Paul took Titus with him from Antioch to the Apostolic council in Jerusalem — consequently, Titus had already earlier been called by the Apostle to collaborate with him. He was a Greek, and at the council the advocates of the law of Moses demanded that he accept circumcision, but the Apostle Paul in this case did not yield to such demands, because he did not wish to give Christians from the Gentiles cause to think that acceptance of the law of Moses was inevitable for them. In the course of several years after the council Titus constantly remained with Paul as his helper in the work of preaching. Paul sent him to Corinth to learn about the mood of the Corinthian Christians (2 Cor 12:17-18), and Titus undoubtedly greatly aided in calming the Corinthians through his words. And the second epistle to the Corinthians was entrusted to Titus to deliver to Corinth. Then we find mention of Titus only in the epistle written to him. Church tradition reports that Titus was a bishop on the island of Crete and died in the city of Gortyna, after having first suffered for the confession of Christ (August 25). His head is kept in Venice, in the cathedral of St. Mark.
The content of the Pastoral Epistles
Not in all the Pastoral Epistles is there strict logical arrangement, but the first epistle to Timothy undoubtedly has such arrangement. Namely, after a brief introduction (1 Tim 1:1-2), the Apostle in the first part of his epistle presents Timothy as a guardian over the church of Ephesus in its entirety (1 Tim 1:3-4:5) — first 1) as a preacher and defender of the saving truth in the struggle against false teachers who separate many members of the church from the unity of faith (1 Tim 1:3-20), then 2) as one maintaining order in church life (1 Tim 2:1-3), and more specifically a) in worship (1 Tim 2:1-15) and b) in church organization: in bishops, deacons and deaconesses Timothy should choose persons fully worthy (1 Tim 3:1-13) and 3) finally as a guardian of the saving truth against false teachers who will appear (1 Tim 3:14): the Church is depicted here as the pillar and ground of the truth. The second main part contains admonitions to Timothy concerning his personal conduct, which should be such that the Church sees in him a good minister of Christ (1 Tim 4:6-16). The third main part, finally, presents to us Timothy as an advisor and shepherd for the Ephesian church community (1 Tim 5:1-6), namely, a) for old men and women (1 Tim 5:1-2), b) for widows (1 Tim 5:3-16), c) for church ministers (1 Tim 5:17-20). In all these cases Timothy is obligated to demonstrate proper care and not be afraid to resort to measures of strictness. Then, after d) a conclusion to the admonitions made, which relates more to Timothy himself (1 Tim 5:21-23), follows, preceded by a reference to the distinction between sins and good works, e) an admonition that Timothy teach slaves how they should conduct themselves toward their masters (1 Tim 5:24), f) an admonition not to strive for wealth, which also relates to Timothy himself (1 Tim 6:3-16) and, finally, g) instruction regarding how to admonish the rich (1 Tim 6:17-19). The conclusion of the epistle contains instruction to Timothy to keep the entrusted treasure of true teaching in purity and a wish for peace to the entire Ephesian Church.
In the epistle to Titus the arrangement of thoughts is much simpler than in the first epistle to Timothy. The epistle is divided into two parts with an introduction (Titus 1:1-4) and conclusion (Titus 3:12-15). In the first part the Apostle urges Titus to appoint as presbyters and bishops such people who would be able to struggle for the wellbeing of the Church against the Judaizing false teachers (Titus 1:5-15), and then in the second part the Apostle first shows Titus how he should apply the demands of “sound teaching” to various ages, sexes and conditions (Titus 2:1-10), and also to all people (Titus 2:11-14). Then, in the second section of the second part, the Apostle (Titus 3:1-11) urges through Titus all the Cretan church community how it should conduct itself toward those outside the faith, among whom it lives, in particular in relation to pagan authorities (Titus 3:1-2), and in this the fundamental basis is indicated for such and not other conduct of believers toward those outside the faith (Titus 3:3-7) and on the other hand Titus himself is recommended to abstain from participation in empty disputes with false teachers and to devote more time to the instruction of his flock (Titus 3:8-11). The conclusion (Titus 3:12-15) contains personal messages and greetings of the Apostle. — Thus, in the first part Titus appears before them as a hierarch, ordaining fully suitable leaders of the Church for church service, and in the second — as a teacher of practical, sound Christianity, of fully correct Christian life.
The second epistle to Timothy is especially rich in personal remarks, which together constitute about one-fifth of the epistle (2 Tim 1:15-18). It can be said to represent the swan song of the Apostle, going to meet death and the heavenly glory united with it. The main theme of the first part of the epistle is the thought of the necessity for Timothy to suffer hardship together with Christ and Paul and faithful witnesses (2 Tim 1:3:14a). The second part depicts for us the image of Timothy as a teacher of Christians. Specifically, in the first part Timothy is called to maintain his trust in the Apostle and confidence in his own strength as he takes up the service entrusted to him (2 Tim 1:3-7), not to be ashamed of the testimony of Christ and to follow the example of his teacher — Paul (2 Tim 1:8-12), to preserve the good deposit entrusted to him (2 Tim 1:13-14), to beware of the bad example of Phygellus and Hermogenes (2 Tim 1:15) and to imitate the courageous sufferer Onesiphorus (2 Tim 1:16-18) and, finally, to pass on the saving truth to faithful disciples who would be capable of teaching it to others, without being much concerned about earthly things, suffering with Christ, so that with Him they might be glorified, as also other believing Christians (2 Tim 2:2-14). Then, in the second part the Apostle teaches Timothy how he should conduct himself toward the false teachers of his time; he should not engage in petty disputes with them, but speak on the substance of the matter and moreover quietly, calmly (2 Tim 2:14-26). Further the Apostle speaks of the false teachers who will arise: in disputes with them Timothy’s chief guide should be the Holy Scripture, which he has studied from infancy (2 Tim 3:1-17). Finally, the Apostle calls Timothy to remember the second coming of the Lord as the coming of the Judge of the world and the imminent departure from this life of the Apostle himself (2 Tim 4:1-8). The epistle concludes with an invitation addressed to Timothy to come to Paul soon — before the onset of winter — and various messages and instructions (2 Tim 4:9-22).
When the Pastoral Epistles were written
Taking into account the circumstance that the events mentioned in the Pastoral Epistles cannot in any way be referred to the period covered by the book of Acts, which ends with a depiction of the Apostle Paul’s imprisonment in Rome (his first imprisonment), and also paying attention to the data concerning the lives of the Apostle Paul, Timothy and Titus, found in the epistles to the Philippians and to Philemon, as well as to the testimony of church tradition, it is necessary to presume that the Pastoral Epistles were written after the Apostle Paul’s release from his first imprisonment. The second epistle to Timothy was undoubtedly written shortly before the martyrdom of the Apostle Paul, while the other two Pastoral Epistles were written before it.
The matter of the origin of these epistles can be presented in the following way. Two years of the Apostle Paul’s first Roman imprisonment were drawing to an end. He intended first of all, upon his release, to visit the churches he had founded in the east (spring of 63 AD). In all probability, the Apostle carried out his intention, and at the time of the Roman fire (July 18-24, 64 AD) and the persecution of Roman Christians that began after it, Paul was no longer in Rome. He hastened to visit the eastern churches and while passing through the island of Crete left Titus there as bishop. At this time he wrote the first epistle to Timothy in Ephesus, and then soon afterwards the epistle to Titus on Crete. The second epistle to Timothy, as is evident from the fact that the Apostle’s circumstances had changed greatly — he was again imprisoned in Rome and expected death — was written shortly before the Apostle’s death in Rome (at the end of 67 AD). It is not possible to determine the time of origin of the Pastoral Epistles with more precision.
Literature on the Pastoral Epistles
Among the holy fathers’ commentaries on the Pastoral Epistles the following are known: by Ephrem the Syrian (in translation from Armenian into Latin 1893), by John Chrysostom 18 homilies, by Theodore of Mopsuestia, by Theodoret of Cyrrhos, by Ambrosiaster, and by Jerome (on the epistle to Titus).
Among recent Western commentaries the following deserve attention: B. Weiss (in Meyer’s Commentary, 1903), Belser (Catholic, 1907), Ramsay (in English, 1909) and Vollenberg (in Zahn’s Commentary, 2nd edition, 1911).
There are few Russian works on the Pastoral Epistles. These are: A. Klitin. The Authenticity of the Epistles of the Holy Apostle Paul to Timothy and Titus. A Critical-Isagogical Essay. Kyiv, 1887. — P. Polyansky. The 1st Epistle of the Holy Apostle Paul to Timothy. An Attempt at a Historical-Exegetical Study. Sergiyev Posad, 1897. — Bishop Theophan. A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles of the Holy Apostle Paul. — A Pastoral Epistle or — Dogmatic and Moral Reflections on the Second Epistle of the Apostle Paul to Timothy (translated from French). Kyiv, 1874. — Troitsky. The Epistles of the Holy Apostle Paul to Timothy and Titus. Kazan, 1884.