Chapter Twenty-Seven

A Lamentation over Tyre

The destruction of Tyre is so certain for the prophet that he can already perform a funeral lament over it. This lament is no less sincere than the lamentation of chapter XIX over the princes of Israel, because Tyre was also, in a sense, a chosen one of God (Ezek 28:12-14), and the destruction of all greatness cannot but inspire sympathy. Having presented Tyre in the image of one of those ships adorned with royal splendor that filled the harbor of the city, the prophet depicts Tyre’s destruction as the wreck of this ship on the sea. The resulting two parts of the discourse—the description of the ship (verses 3–9) and its wreck (verses 24–36—a part twice as large as the preceding, since Tyre’s destruction is what matters most to the prophet; verses 24–31 are the actual destruction, verses 32–36 the impression produced by it), are separated by the section of verses 10–23, where the prophet abandons his comparison and describes the rich market of Tyre. The chapter is considered the most poetic in the book; such especially are the first and third parts of it, which have even a poetic—namely, distich (two-line)—structure, for example:

Tyre, you say, “I am perfect in beauty.”

Your domain is in the heart of the seas; your builders have perfected your beauty, etc.

Ezekiel 27:3. And say to Tyre, “O you, who dwell by the entrances of the sea, merchant of the peoples to many coastlands, thus says the Lord God: O Tyre, you have said, ‘I am perfect in beauty.’ “In the entrances of the sea,” literally “in the entrances, inlets of the sea,” that is, in bays, harbors. There were two in Tyre: Sidonian to the north and Egyptian to the south; the first exists even now; the location of the second could not be determined (Renan, Mission de Phenicie, p. 556). Slavic: “on a maritime entrance”—a gulf. “Merchant of the peoples.” Literally “merchant woman.” LXX: “marketplace of peoples,” εμποριφ λαων, market of peoples. “With the peoples on many coastlands.” The chief significance of Tyre was that it was the intermediary in the trade of Asia with the islands and coasts (see explanation of Ezek 26:15) of the Mediterranean Sea. “You have said.” Tyre is reproached for self-exaltation also in Ezek 28:2 etc. “I am perfect in beauty!” Lam 2:15; Ezek 16:14. Slavic: “I have laid my beauty upon myself” (the self-exaltation is intensified). The beauty and riches of Tyre are praised by all ancient historians. Hebrew kelilat yofi. In Egyptian, Phoenicia was called Iagi—“beauty”: Budde (Bibl. Urg. 358) compares this with the name Iapheg (“beauty”), which he considers to represent Phoenicia.

Ezekiel 27:4. Your domain is in the heart of the seas; your builders have perfected your beauty: “Domain,” Hebrew gevul, may mean also “edge” (Ezek 43:20), “projection” (Ezek 40:12), with regard to a ship (about which the speech is, as it compares to Tyre), it may be “side.” And the LXX probably considered the word a nautical term, because they resorted to transcription: “in the heart of the seas Beleimom”—τω Βεελειμ, perhaps more precisely: “Beeleimom.” “In the heart of the seas”—in the midst of the sea, which by its size and intricacy truly deserves the name of seas (the Mediterranean). The strait between the island of Tyre and the mainland was 4 stades (Movers, Phoenic. II, 1, 223). “Builders.” Slavic “sons,” which is similar in Hebrew. “Have perfected your beauty.” Made it so beautiful that nothing could be more beautiful. Slavic like verse 3: “they laid your beauty upon you.”

Ezekiel 27:5. Your planks were made of pine trees from Senir; your mast was cedar from Lebanon; The comparison with a ship to Tyre was all the more appropriate because it was called Tyros instabilis due to its frequent earthquakes (Lucan. Pharsal. III. 217) and because, with its harbors, it presented what must have been a whole forest of masts. This famous ship was unique in its kind and therefore built from the most expensive materials gathered from all over the world, but which were actually used on ships. “The Hebrew loved to use geographical definitions as epitheta ornantia” (Bertholet.). “From Senir.” “Senir” according to Deut 3:9 is an Amorite, and according to cuneiform inscriptions (“Saniru”) and Assyrian (Schrader, K. u. A. T. 159. Delitzsch Wo lag d. Paradies 104) name of Hermon (or Anti-Lebanon), properly the northern or north-western part of it in relation to Damascus (Abulfelda according to Smend), which is why it is distinguished in Song 4:8; 1 Chr 5:23 from Hermon itself. “Pine trees,” Hebrew berosh, a tree that, along with cedar, served as the main material for temple structures (1 Sam 5:8); the peaks of Hermon were famous for cypress and it was considered especially expensive and fine building material: Sir 24:14; Verg. Georg. II, 443; Theophr. Hist. pl. V, 8. But the LXX: “cedar,” and further “cypress” instead of “cedar,” perhaps a transposition by oversight. “Your planks.” Hebrew luchötayim—“boards” dual—construction of double boards, consequently, as in Russian—“deck”; Vulgate likewise: labatis. The LXX: “thin boards” and refer to the following proposition, owing to which it seems that the fir masts are made of cypress boards. “Cedar in Syria was the usual ship-building material: Plin. XVI, 40, 76.” “Your mast,” Hebrew törez, properly “pine,” hence “high signal” Isa 30:17 and “mast”—already at Isa 33:23. Therefore the LXX: “spruce masts (masts; ιστους) of fir.”

Ezekiel 27:6. Your oars were made of the oaks of Bashan; your deck was made of boxwood inlaid with ivory from the coasts of Kittim; Bashan, later called Batanea, east of the Jordan, besides strong oak (Isa 2:13; Zech 11:2), was famous for cattle (Deut 32:14; Amos 4:1; Ezek 39:18). “Your deck”—a conjectural translation according to the Vulgate (transtra) from the Hebrew keresh, which in Exod 26:32 refers to columns in the walls of the tabernacle. LXX—“sanctuaries,” reading apparently “kodesh” and understanding ship’s chapels. “From boxwood.” Hebrew bat ashurim, literally “daughter of Assyrians.” Ashur was also called a region in transjordanian Palestine (perhaps named after some unknown Arab tribe: 2 Sam 2:9). Since these words in the Hebrew are a definition of “ivory,” the expression should convey the idea that the ship’s decks were made of ivory, a product (“daughter”) of Assyrians or the Ashur region (hence the Vulgate; ex ebore Indico). But given the oddity of such an expression, some propose vocalizing bi-tashurim, which gives the idea that the decks were made of ivory in beech: theasuri in Isa 41:18 is some kind of wood like beech or larch (cedar with a straight arrangement of branches): it is known even from the Aeneid (10, 135–137) that beech was often trimmed with ivory. Slavic: “wooden houses” (bat read as bant), that is, cabins. Vulgate. praetoriola, by which Jerome, according to his own words, wished to denote cupboards for storing valuables (from praetore—the admiral on a ship). “Ivory,” Hebrew shen, properly “tooth” in the sense of “ivory” (since it is obtained from elephant tusks) is used in 1 Sam 10:18, Song 5:14: Greek εξ ελεφαντος, Slavic “of elephants (bones).” “From the coasts of Kittim.” Κιτιον is a Phoenician colony on Cyprus, which gave its name to the entire island, and beyond it to other islands and coastal lands of the Mediterranean: Greece, Italy (1 Macc 1:1; 1 Macc 8:5). Therefore the Vulgate: “de insulis Italiae” (apparently from the desire to include his homeland in the biblical text). Cyprus provided good pine for ships: trabes (logs) Surgia in Horace.

Ezekiel 27:7. Fine linen from Egypt was your sail, serving as your banner; blue and purple from the coasts of Elishah was your awning. “Fine linen,” Slavic more precisely: “fine linen with embroidery”; about fine linen see Ezek 9:2. Patterned, that is, woven of different colors, of course, was more expensive and considered more beautiful than plain white, and in Tyre it was used instead of plain linen for sails! “As your banner”—a conjectural translation of Hebrew nes, used in other places in the sense of “sign”; on images of Egyptian ships at Wilkinson’s (Manners and customs III, 208) and Rosselini (Mon. civ. Tab. 107), there is no pennant, but only one sail on one mast—wide, square, divided into red and blue squares, and surrounded by a gilded border (“patterned”). The ship of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium had purple sails. Slavic instead of “served as your banner”—“was for you a couch (στρωμνη, apparently a bed in the cabin) to cover you with glory” (such couches were objects of wonder—?). “Blue and purple linen,” Slavic “blue and in crimson,” Hebrew tekelet and argaman—two kinds of purple; about the first kind see Ezek 23:6; the second kind is mentioned also 2 Chr 2:7, in Assyrian “argamanu”—red purple. “The coasts of Elishah”—according to some, the Peloponnese, as its ancient name Geese (Hellespont), Epi, Eleusis, and the fact that it was rich in purple snails suggests; according to others, Carthage, founded by the daughter of the Tyrian king Dido, whose first name was Elishah; according to third, Sicily and lower Italy. The place occupied by Elishah in the genealogy Gen 10—between Iavan (Ionians) and Tharshish (in Spain)—favors all three assumptions; all three places could bear such a name and be, if not the origin, then the place of processing of purple. The expression does not say that Elishah’s purple was better than Phoenician, which was considered first rate (Str. 16, 457), but only that the whole world brings tribute to Tyre. “As your awning”—a tent to protect the deck from sun and rain; therefore the Slavic correctly and beautifully: “and it was your garment.”

Ezekiel 27:8. The inhabitants of Sidon and Arvad were your rowers; your skilled men, O Tyre, were in you; they were your pilots. “As the construction, so the crew of the ship is composed of the best materials” (Kraetzschmar). The way Ezekiel composes this crew from different Phoenician cities may perhaps reflect the political relations of powers in the Phoenician alliance, whose hegemony belonged to Tyre. To this alliance probably also belonged old Sidon (now Sanda), submitting thus to Tyre. Arvad (Gen 10:18) Assyr. Arvada, Armada, Aradu, Orthosia of the Greeks, an island with a city of the same name, founded by Sidonian emigrants, at the mouth of the Eleutherus, 20 stades from the shore, to the north of Tripoli; now Ruwad, Ruweyde; according to Strabo (16, 753) was famous for ship-builders. Slavic: “Aradani.” “Rowers”—sailors, low-ranking ship workers, commanded as captains and pilots (“pilots”) by the Tyrians themselves. “Skilled”—the Slavic more precisely “wise.” About these wise men of Tyre, Ezekiel, on the basis of Ezek 28:3; Zech 9:2, is supposedly speaking ironically.

Ezekiel 27:9. Elders of Gebal were in you, caulking your seams; all the ships of the sea with their sailors were in you, plying for exchange. “Elders,” Slavic “ancients,” Vulgate. more precisely senes, a special term to designate members of the council, by which were governed the majority of maritime Semitic cities (Renan, La miss. d. Phoen. 453). “Gebal,” Slavic “Biblyans,” Greek Βιβλιων—Byblos (Assyr. Gubla, Kubla), so famous for the cult of Adonis, now Jebail, between Tripoli and Beirut. “Skilled,” Slavic more precisely “wise,” as about Tyre in verse 8; moreover, Byblos was known as a learned city: Philo of Byblos, Sanchuniathon. “Caulking your seams,” literally “water paths for you.” Consequently, there was such a specialty among ship crews. Slavic: “these strengthened your counsel”—reference to the above-mentioned “councils of elders” in maritime Phoenician cities. “With them” begins direct discourse about Tyre: the comparison with a ship is abandoned. “In you”—in the harbor of Tyre. “For exchange,” literally “for the exchange of exchange goods,” merchandise; Hebrew maárab from the root “to exchange” (only here, verse 27, and verse 34 clearly in the sense of “goods”; but ancient translators wavered in its meaning: LXX “to the wests of the wests,” that is, sailed to the very far west; Symm. επιμιξια, communication; Vulgate. negotiatio). The expression clearly recalls that trade was originally barter.

Ezekiel 27:10. Persia and Lydia and Libya were in your army, your men of war; they hung the shield and helmet in you; they gave you splendor. A list begins and goes to verse 25 of the peoples who had relations with Tyre, chiefly commercial, a list reminiscent in length and fullness of the genealogy of chapter X of Genesis. The principle of the order accepted in the list, insofar as it can be noted, is a spiral, tightening around Tyre and beginning from the most distant peoples of the northeast and southwest of the Hebrew world of that time. “Persia.” Hebrew paras, as is evident from Ezra 9 and the LXX, means exactly the Persians, who appear for the first time under this name in Ezekiel (earlier they appeared under the family name “Elam” Gen 10:22 etc.) here and in Ezek 38:5, where they are named first (as here) among Gog’s allies. The fact that they are placed here partly and especially in Ezek 38:5 alongside clearly African peoples prompts some commentators to understand by paras not Persians but some African people, for example, the Rhorsi or Pharusii (Plin. V, 1, 8; VI, 30, 35; Ptol. IV, 6, 16), who according to Strabo (17, 826) were good archers. The relations of the Phoenicians and Persians were not yet known well enough that one could not (with some interpretation) rule out the presence of Persians in the Phoenician army for hire. “Lydia.” A translation from the Hebrew lud. Lud—a people, which according to Ezek 30:5 and Jer 46:9 appears alongside Cush (Ethiopians) and Put (here “Libyan”) as an ally of Egypt and Isa 66:19 is classed (with Tarshish and Pul) among the distant peoples of the west; therefore this is hardly the Lesser Asiatic Lydians (Gen 10:22), but rather a people descended from Ludim (Gen 10:14), the firstborn son of Mizraim (Egypt), a people, consequently African, whose dwelling place is unknown; perhaps—Λεναθαι (Mov. l.c., 2, 377 etc.), ancestors of the Berbers, but they appear from the 6th century B.C. “Libyan.” A translation from Hebrew Put. Put appears alongside Cush and Lud according to Jer 46:9 in the service of Egypt, and according to Ezekiel Ezek 38:5 an ally of Gog; compare Nah 3:9. Gen 10:6 places Put alongside Cush, Mizraim, and Canaan, son of Ham. In Mauritania many Greek writers mention the river and place Φουντη, Φουθ, Put (Ptol. IV, 1, 3; Plin. V, 1, 13). Egyptian Libya was called Fayat in Coptic. The inscription on the tomb of Darius I mentions the African people Put; compare also the Book of Jubilees, chapter XI. “Were in your army,” apparently as hired soldiers. From the indicated peoples Lud, according to Isa 66:19 and Jer 46:9, was a good archer; according to Strabo (17, 828), the Pharusii were such archers too and had combat chariots with bows. Jer 46:9 contrasts Put as a heavy-armed archer to Lud. Hence also the Slavic instead of “men of war”—“valiant men of yours.” “They hung the shield and helmet in you.” The Phoenician custom of hanging on the walls of a city the shields and helmets of the defeated (as trophies or merely for decoration) was adopted by Solomon and by the Hebrews: 1 Sam 10:16-17; Song 4:4; 1 Macc 4:57. Ships too were hung with shields (Layard 2, 388; Mov. 2, 3, 179 etc.). “They gave you splendor,” the Slavic more precisely: “glory.” Such a skillful composition of an army (and perhaps also the abundance of hung shields and helmets) gave special luster and military glory to Tyre.

Ezekiel 27:11. The men of Arvad with your own army were on your walls all around, and Gamadites were in your towers. They hung their shields on your walls all around; they completed your beauty. Hired soldiers, described in the preceding verse, as the present verse shows, were sent in a column, while Tyre itself was guarded by its own, Phoenician forces (Slavic: “and your strength”). The core of its garrison (“were on your walls”) were apparently the Arvadites (compare verse 8). “And Gamadites.” Until recently, this Hebrew word was a riddle and was considered the name of a people completely lost to historical memory; but now it has been compared (Kraetzschmar) with the kamadu mentioned in Egyptian inscriptions and in the Tel-el-Amarna inscription kumidi—a southern Phoenician principality (to which often in eastern languages q is replaced by g, for instance, Gebal verse 9 in Assyrian was called Kubla). LXX: “your watchers” without “and,” considering it a continuation of the preceding proposition: the Arvadites and Tyre’s own forces were watchers (a garrison) of the city (guards on its walls), housed in the towers (“pirgoi”); the Slavic has a doublet “but also Midians” from Symmachus, who divided the Hebrew wegammadim into wegam—“but also” and madii—“Midians.” Vulgate. Pygmaei; deriving from Arab. and Ethiop. root gamad—“to cut.” “Shields,” Hebrew shelet, in other places “shield”; but the LXX “bucklers”; parallel to verse 10b. Ezek 27:12-24. A detailed description is given of Tyre’s market itself; this market is viewed from the perspective of its diversity of peoples and merchandise. In this enumeration of peoples, the peoples of the Mediterranean Sea (verses 12–14), consequently the western ones, are followed by the east in three parallel lines running from south to north (verses 15–18, 19–21, 22–24). Omitted are those peoples about which there was already mention (for example, Elishah); for others there is no great commercial (Ezek 17:4) city of Babylon: it could not be considered a servant of Tyre, nor Egypt (compare verse 7). To prevent the reader from tiring of the monotony of the enumeration, it is diversified with synonyms: “traded,” “paid you,” “delivered,” “exchanged,” “bartered,” “went in exchange for you.”

Ezekiel 27:12. Tarshish was your merchant because of your abundant wealth; silver, iron, tin, and lead they exchanged for your wares. Tarshish (also Gen 10:4; Isa 23:1 and many others) is Tartessus, a known Phoenician colony in Spain, consequently in the most direct relations with Tyre. The mineral wealth of ancient Spain is known: Jer 10:9. Pliny (Hist. nat. 3, 4): “almost all Spain abounds in metals: lead, iron, copper, silver, gold” (compare ibid. 32, 31, 34, 41. Diodorus 5, 38. Strabo 3, 147). But remarkably, in the Old Testament gold is nowhere called a Spanish product: therefore the addition of the LXX “gold and copper” is questionable. “Exchanged for your wares,” Hebrew “gave izzo-bon,” a word found only in this chapter—Assyr. uzubu, literally “breakage”; Slavic “gave your purchase.”

Ezekiel 27:13. Javan, Tubal, and Meshech traded with you, exchanging human beings and vessels of bronze for your merchandise. “Javan,” Assyr. Iavanu, properly Ionians and all Greeks with their colonies in Sicily and Italy; therefore the LXX: Ελλες (but in Gen 10:2: “Javan”), Vulgate. Graecia. “Tubal and Meshech” in Gen 10:2 appear alongside Javan as sons of Japheth and everywhere (except Ps 119:5) are mentioned together: Ezekiel in Ezek 32:26 puts them in connection with Ashur, and in Ezek 38:2 they are allies of Gog. Tubal, Assyr. Tabalu, corresponding to Greek Τιβαρηνοι, lived between the Black Sea and Cilicia, and Meshech, LXX rightly “Mosoch,” Assyr. Musku, Greek Μοσχοι, on the north of Minor Asia, first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus; in the Persian kingdom both belonged to the 19th satrapy (Herod. III, 9; VII, 78; Anab. V, 5; 2 Plin. VI, 10; V, 27; Str. XI, 497 etc. Plut. Pomp. 34). Jerome: “Iberians and Cappadocians” (the capital of the latter in his time was called Mazaca). Perhaps some Scythian tribes (compare explanation of Ezek 32:26). The LXX do not consider them proper names: “all (that is, Hellas; read tevel—“universe”) and your neighbors” (παρατεινοντα; “your”—addition in Slavic; meshek presumably derived from mashak—“to stretch”). “Human beings.” In the expression sounds a condemnation of the slave trade. About the slave trade of Javan it also says Joel 3:6 (compare Amos 1:6). Euboean copper was famous (Mov. II, 65).

Ezekiel 27:14. From the house of Togarmah they exchanged for your wares horses, war horses, and mules. “From the house”—tribe. Togarmah. According to Gen 10:3 a son of Gomer of Japheth. Ezekiel in Ezek 38:6 places it on the far north among Gog’s allies. Jerome and Theodoret saw in it the Phrygians (by consonance). Christian Armenians also traced themselves to it. Both countries (Phrygia and Armenia) were famous for horses—see below (Her. I, 194; VII, 40; Anab. IV, 34; Str. XI, 13, 9). Cappadocia too was famous for the same. In Assyrian chronicles Tilgarimmu is mentioned (Del. W. I. d. Par. 246), in Strabo Τροκμοι, Τροκμαδες, which were Celts inhabiting Galatia. All this is near Armenia. The last two testimonies (Assyr. and Strabo) vindicate the LXX reading “Forgama.” “Horses”—draft horses. “War horses”—for cavalry; Hebrew literally “riders,” therefore Slavic “horsemen.” Mules—young mules, Slavic “small mules.” “Merchandise”—see verse 12.

Ezekiel 27:15. The sons of Dedan traded with you; many islands were your trading partners, bringing you ivory and ebony in payment for your goods. “Sons” — as also in verse 16, instead of “house” in verse 14 and simple names in verses 12–13. The Bible knows of Dedan in two forms: Arabian, Semitic (; and here verse 20; cf. ) and Hamitic, Ethiopian (), which is clearly the one meant here, for it was Ethiopia specifically that was famous in antiquity for ivory and ebony, surpassing even India in the quality of the latter (Herod. III, 114; Str. XVII, 821; Lucan. Phars. X, 17). The LXX: “The sons of Rhodians,” apparently reading Rhodes instead of Dedan (the letters resh and daleth are very similar) and understanding Rhodes, which fits well with the following “many islands,” that is, of the Mediterranean, which are mentioned probably as intermediaries in Tyre’s trade with distant Ethiopia; but the Slavonic “from the islands they increased your merchandise” gives the idea of Rhodes as an intermediary in the trade of the Mediterranean islands with Tyre. Gen 25:3 Ezek 25:13 Jer 25:23 Gen 10:7 “Ebony” — ebony wood; the Hebrew gabhnim is clearly a foreign word and is translated by Symmachus, the Vulgate, and Kimchi as έβενος, which it also resembles. In the days of Solomon, ivory and ebony were obtained by the Hebrews from Ophir. The LXX: “and to those bringing (deriving from bo, ‘to come’) you gave your wages,” that is, Tyre paid dearly to Rhodes and the islands for delivery of these items, since they themselves obtained them from afar and were only contractors in supplying them to Tyre.

Ezekiel 27:16. On account of the abundance of your trading activity, the Arameans traded with you; they paid for your goods with carbuncles, purple fabrics, embroidered materials, and fine linen, and coral, and rubies. “On account of the abundance of your trading activity,” literally “because of the multitude of your works” (Vulgate: propter multitudinem operum tuorum), that is, to acquire the various products of Tyre. The LXX: “from the multitude of your merchants, symmixtou,” reading instead of maase — maarab — “merchant” from verse 9. “The Arameans” — Syria in the broadest sense, since many of the items mentioned were obtained from the distant east and since verse 18 speaks of Damascus. Therefore, perhaps the LXX read adam, “man” instead of aram, seeing here an indication of the merchandise and a continuation of the description of Rhodes trade (“you gave... men bought your merchandise”); according to the LXX, modern scholars propose reading “Edom,” which they say would fit the geographical order of the description better. “Carbuncles” — a conjectural translation of the Hebrew “nophek,” mentioned among precious stones also in ; (in the breastplate of the high priest, first in the second row, with the sapphire). The LXX — “stacte” (that is, a drop — fragrant resin), cf. blessed Theodoret: “balsam,” but in other places the LXX: anthrakas. The Vulgate: gemma, pearl. It is remarkable that after this stone are named as items of Aramean import fabrics and again two kinds of less expensive stones (Russian: coral and rubies): the prophet is evidently very precise in his description and enumerates the goods by their costliness; but the LXX, perhaps not taking this into account, did not see fit to discern precious stones here. Ezek 28:13 Exod 28:18 “Purple fabrics” — Hebrew “argaman,” see the explanation of verse 7, where the Slavonic “blue” is placed out of order: “variegation (see following: ‘embroidered fabrics’) and blue”; it should be the other way around; the Greek omits it. “Embroidered” (fabrics), Hebrew rikma, LXX: “variegation,” see the explanation of . “Fine linen” — Hebrew betz; in verse 7 and the Hebrew shesh is so translated, which is thought to be the name of Egyptian fine linen, more ancient, while betz, on the basis of this passage, where it first appears, is considered the name of Phoenician fine linen, since betz is a Phoenician word meaning cotton, from which the Phoenicians wove their fine linen, whereas the Egyptians used flax; later betz came to be used for any fine linen (cf. with ), passing into other languages. The LXX “from Tarsilis” — an expression which in the Hebrew text at this place does not exist at all (blessed Jerome). “Coral.” Hebrew ramoth, incomprehensible in the LXX, where here is a transliteration (Slavonic “ramoth”), thus translated by the rabbis; the Persian Gulf abounded in coral (as also in pearls, see the explanation of “carbuncles”), harvesting of which encompassed both the Indian Ocean and which were a usual item of trade with the west (Plin. XXXII, 11). “Rubies” — kadod. The Hebrew was incomprehensible to the LXX, where here is a transliteration replacing daleth with resh: “chorchre,” but in : “jasper,” which indeed was found in abundance in Syria (Plin. ib.); the translation “ruby” is based on the Arabic root. Ezek 16:10 Ezek 16:10 2 Chr 3:14 Exod 26:31 Isa 54:12

Ezekiel 27:17. Judah and the land of Israel traded with you; they paid for your merchandise with wheat from Minnith and cakes, and honey, and oil, and balm. Minnith, according to , was a Gileadite city, known besides for wheat () and one of the products mentioned later: balm (). According to Eusebius and Jerome, Manith was found “on the fourth stone” (at the distance of the fourth thrown stone) from Heshbon on the road to Philadelphia. The LXX read Minnith differently: the sale of wheat; the Vulgate freely: frumento primo. Concerning wheat as a natural wealth of Palestine, the following speak: ; ; ; Josephus Antiqu, 14:10, 6; and also . According to the Talmud, the best wheat in Israel was from Michmash (Smend). Judg 11:33 2 Chr 27:5 Jer 8:22 Gen 49:20 1 Sam 5:11 Acts 12:20 Ezek 26:2 “Cakes” — a conjectural translation based on the Syriac root, the Targum, and ancient commentaries (Hesychius: το εκ μελιτος τρωγαλιον) of the Hebrew hapax legomenon panag, which the LXX consider aromatic substances: “and myrrh and cassia,” the Vulgate balsam, the Targum and rabbis sweet, edible herbs or soap made from plant ash, the Peshitta — millet. — “Honey” refers mainly to that of wild bees (), since apiculture was foreign to the Hebrews (Nowack, Arch. I, 86). “Oil of wood.” The olive tree was abundant not only in Judah but throughout all Palestine: ; Josephus Bel. jud. 2:21, 2. In the time of blessed Jerome it was exported mainly to Egypt; now it is used in soap factories. Isa 7:22 Deut 33:24 “Balm.” Scarcely the resin of the true balsam tree, which did not grow in Gilead, that supplier of Hebrew balm, but rather the resin of the pistachio tree () or terebinth, which served medical purposes. The text agrees well with the LXX: “resin” ρητινη and the Vulgate resina (resin). True balsam is native to Arabia and only later came to be cultivated near Jericho (Smend). Gen 43:11

Ezekiel 27:18. “Because of the abundance of your trading activity” see verse 16. Not in the LXX. — “Wine from Helbon.” Helbon, Assyrian Hilbunu, should be the present Halun about two miles northeast of Damascus; it is celebrated for wine even now; according to Strabo (XV, 3, 22) Persian kings drank only this wine; the wine of these places is praised also in ; . It is incorrect that Helbon is identified with Aleppo, which lies too far and too far north of Damascus (see the beginning of the verse). The Vulgate freely (as also about the wheat of verse 17): vino pingui, full-bodied. “White wool.” Hebrew “wool of Tzahar,” a word used only also in , to which the meaning white, shining is ascribed conjecturally; more likely a proper name; perhaps Sakarah, now Nabatea; the LXX conjecturally: “a shining fleece from Miletum,” where “shining” appears only in the Slavonic, a doublet; the Vulgate again freely: lanis coloris optimi. Hos 14:8 Song 8:11 Ezek.27:19. Dan and Iavan from Uzal paid you for your goods with worked iron; cassia and aromatic cane were exchanged for you. Judg 5:10

Ezekiel 27:19. “Dan.” In Hebrew vedan, where ve cannot be the conjunction “and,” because all verses begin without the conjunction. Consequently, Vedan is here a proper name (not Dan). In ancient Arabia was a city Waddan between Mecca and Medina (Smend). There could also have been a place called Aden. In verses 18–22 the discourse is entirely about Arabia. The Slavonic “Vedan,” the Greek omits it. — “Iavan” — the same as in verse 13, but, as the following circumstance of place shows, the Ionians from Arabia are meant, that is, Greek (Vulgate also here: Graecia) colonies there. The LXX read yain, “wine of Dedan” and saw here a continuation of the discourse about Damascene trade; the Slavonic a doublet: “and Ionians. “From Uzal.” So was called in antiquity the present Sana, the chief city of Yemen, which received the latter name after the 5th century after Christ. In one cuneiform inscription Uzal is mentioned as a famous wine country (Kraetzschmar). The LXX and Vulgate merge the preposition min “from” with the word: Slavonic “from Ozal,” Mosel, — a third type of Damascene wine traded to Tyre; in the Slavonic is also a doublet: “from Assila.” “Worked iron.” The first — a translation based on the LXX, Peshitta, and Vulgate (fabricatum) of the obscure Hebrew word asot, which apparently all of them read asot; others: “polished”: the Targum “wire.” If the first translation is correct, then perhaps saber blades are meant. Alongside Yemenite swords, Indian swords were renowned among the Arabs; the former were perhaps only imitations of the latter (Smend). “Cassia.” Hebrew kidda is so translated by Onkelos, the Peshitta, the Vulgate (the latter in other places), and here stacte, generally fragrant resin. A kind of fragrant cinnamon, laurus cassius or cinnamomum aromaticum, which entered into the composition of the holy anointing oil (). It grew in India and, apparently, also in Arabia (Herod. III, 110 and others). The LXX omit it; in other places iris. “Aromatic cane.” Hebrew kane simply cane. It entered into the composition of the holy anointing oil () and was used for incense ( and others). The Greeks and Romans knew a reed that had medical application (Diod. I, 17), entered into the composition of fragrances and was used for incense (Plin. XIII, 2; XV, 7). It was, doubtless, acorus (sweet flag) calamus of Linnaeus. It is still imported in masses to the Damascus market from India, its native home, but is not foreign to Arabia and even to Lebanon. The LXX: “wheels,” which fits better with the preceding iron; in other places the LXX translate kane as καλαμος and κυναμωνον; the Vulgate calamus. Exod 30:24 Ezek.27:20. Dedan traded with you in precious saddle cloths for riding. Exod 30:23 Jer 6:20

Ezekiel 27:20. “Dedan” — a trading Arabian people, mentioned repeatedly in the Old Testament (; ) and dwelling in northeast Arabia near the present ruins of Dedan (west of Tema) and to the south — “Precious saddle cloths” — the most probable translation of the Hebrew bigde hoches, “garments, coverings for spreading”; perhaps saddles. The Vulgate tapetibus ad sedendum (carpets for sitting on one’s heels). The LXX: “beasts of choice for chariots” — draft animals: horses, mules. Ezek.27:21. Arabia and all the princes of Kedar traded with you in lambs and rams and goats. Gen 10:7 Ezek 25:13

Ezekiel 27:21. “Arabia” — Hebrew arav — a name first appearing in Isaiah (): meant not only the peninsula but, as its root shows, the nomadic tribes of nomads of the Syro-Arabian desert, reaching, as they do now, in search of pastures to Babylon; in the books of Chronicles ( and others) the word seems to mean the peninsula only. — “Kedarite.” An Ishmaelite () nomadic tribe of the Syro-Arabian desert, which suffered from Nebuchadnezzar (), Assyrian Kidru, in Pliny (V, 12) Cedrei; famous for flocks and as archers (; and following). — “Traded with you,” the Slavonic more precisely: “merchants of your hand,” that is, subject to you, intermediaries of trade, agents, which only the Bedouins could be. — “Lambs.” The LXX — “camels,” having read kar — “ram” with the preposition be as beker according to “young camel.” — “Goats.” The LXX “lambs,” Hebrew gattud literally leading, as also ul — ram. Ezek.27:22. The merchants of Sheba and Raamah traded with you in all the finest fragrances and all kinds of precious stones, and gold they paid for your goods. Isa 13:20 2 Chr 21:16 Gen 25:13 Jer 49:28 Isa 60:7 Isa 21:16 Isa 60:6

Ezekiel 27:22. “Sheba” — a wealthy, trading people (), according to of Cushite (Hamitic) origin, in southern, blessed Arabia (Yemen), controlling eastern trade as Dedan controlled the western, often mentioned by ancient writers; Strabo (XVI, 768; cf. Plin VI, 28) places them at the Red Sea; concerning their wealth speak both classics (Plin. XII, 7; Diod. III, 46) and Arab legends (Quran XXVII, 20 and following). Their chief city was Marib (Str. XVI, 768 and others), now the ruins of Marib six days’ journey east of Sana. Their trade was not limited to Arabian products but extended to Indian, Ethiopian; they traded with Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Besides commercial relations, they had numerous conquests and colonies not only in Arabia but in Syria and Mesopotamia (. Plin. XII, 35). “Raamah,” Slavonic “Rama,” according to a Cushite, father of Dedan and Sheba. Location uncertain. Most likely identical with the Rammaniats of Strabo (XVI, 4, 24), in southern Arabia; mentioned in Sabean inscriptions (Bertholet); others identify it with Rhegma of Ptolemy (VI, 7, 14), those dwelling at the Persian Gulf. Ezek 38:13 Gen 10:7 Job 1:15 “Finest fragrances,” literally “head of fragrances.” In the Sabean part of Arabia grew, according to ancient accounts, balsam (and now), cassia, frankincense, myrrh, palms, sweet flag, cinnamon, larimon. The LXX: “first sweetnesses” ηδισματων, doubtless spices. Concerning Sabean riches and trade in roots and fragrances speak ; ; . Gen 10:7 “All kinds of precious stones.” Onyx, ruby, agate, carnelian are found even now in the mountains of Hadramawt; in Yemen are crystal, jasper, and many rubies (Niebur Descript. р. 125). Cf. . — Gold was mined in Arabia much further north (Str. 778. Diod III, 45) but was obtained there mainly from India (Smend), as were also precious stones. Now it is not mined. Concerning Sheba’s trade and wealth in gold speak ; ; . 1 Sam 10:2 Isa 60:6 Ps 71:10 Ezek.27:23. Haran and Kane and Eden, merchants of Sheba, Assur, and Chilmad traded with you. 1 Sam 10:10 1 Sam 10:2 Jer 6:20 Isa 60:6

Ezekiel 27:23. The enumeration passes from Arabia into Mesopotamia and neighboring lands. “Harran” — the well-known city in northeast Mesopotamia ( and others), Assyrian Harranu, Greek Καρραι. An ancient not only cultural center and seat of Sabeanism, but also a trading center (then holy places often served as trading centers, and trading caravans were also pilgrimage journeys). “Kane,” Slavonic “Kanaa.” Should be Kullani of the cuneiform inscriptions in north Syria, an abbreviation of Chalne ; ; . Earlier it was identified with Ctesiphon on the basis of Pliny’s testimony (VI, 26) that Ctesiphon was in Chalitis; but Ctesiphon is of Greek origin. Among the classics is mentioned Καιναι on the Tigris. Gen 11:31 “Eden,” Slavonic and some Greek codices “Dedan,” apparently incorrectly, from verse 20, which is lacking in the Vatican and other manuscripts. It differs from the location of paradise in Hebrew by the first “e”: the former is written with long tseire, the present name with short segol. Should be identical with the Eden mentioned beside Harran ; and the Bit-Adini of cuneiform inscriptions, a region on both banks of the middle Euphrates. Among the classics, for example, in Stephen of Byzantium are mentioned ‘ Αδανα and ‘ Εδδανα in those same places. Targum: Adiabene. Gen 10:10 Amos 6:2 Isa 10:9 “Merchants of Sheba” — mentioned here again (cf. verse 22), only as intermediaries we enumerate them in this verse with the lands and Tyre. About such mediation their expressive testimony is given by Juba in Pliny (XII, 17), that the Sabaeans, dwelling in the country of spices, came with these and other goods (especially fragrances) to Harran, where was an annual fair; from there they went to Gebal (in Phoenicia), Palestine, from which they exported styrax, and even to Pareno. Amos 1:5 2 Sam 19:12 “Assur,” of course Assyria, not the unmentioned anywhere in Scripture Supa or Essuriy, a port on the right bank of the Euphrates (Mov. according to Trochon). Tribute from Assyria (even tribute — in the sense of commercial profit) — a sign of Tyre’s special strength and brilliance. “Chilmad” — hapax legomenon. The LXX reading “Harman” allows comparison with Harmande of Xenophon (Anab. I, 5, 10) at the boundary of Euphrates on the border of Babylonia and the famous Carmania. Near Baghdad was the known Calvada (Menarit. Babylon et la Chaldee, 107–111.). Ezek.27:24. They traded with you in precious garments, fine fabrics and embroidered materials, which they brought to your market in sealed chests, made of cedar and carefully packed.

Ezekiel 27:24. The verse is full of unknown words. “Precious garments.” The first word, doubtless, is a conjectural translation of the Hebrew makhlul, properly perfection, beauty; an almost identical word in (where Russian: “elaborately dressed,” Slavonic “finely woven”) denotes some distinctive and beautiful characteristic of the Assyrians; the second (“garments”) — a conjectural translation of the Hebrew hapax 19: gelom, to which the Targum assigns the meaning garment; it resonates with the Persian word “khlamta” and the Babylonian “gulinu.” Sennaar mantles were famous even in the days of Joshua (). The Vulgate involucra, coverings. “Fine fabrics and embroidered materials.” Hebrew tekelet and rikma, see the explanation of . The Slavonic instead of four listed concepts has only two: “blue and scarlet” — blue and red purple, and the Greek only one; υακινθον — hyacinth or its purple color. Ezek 23:12 Josh 7:21 “In sealed chests.” The second word — a conjectural translation of the Hebrew genez, to which in is given the meaning “treasury” (Russian Bible “treasury”); the Slavonic here and there: “treasures.” The Vulgate too: gaza. The construction of the Hebrew text here gives the thought of a new item of merchandise, which could not be “boxes for goods,” and they in general are not “precious.” Based on Persian and Ethiopian roots, the word is assigned the meaning “carpets,” “coverings,” which, like curtains and tent furnishings, were famous in Babylon (Mov. 262). “Precious” — Hebrew beromim, Assyrian burruму — variegated, variously woven; Slavonic “chosen.; Ezek 16:10” “Made of cedar and carefully packed” — literally: (they traded) in ropes haushim and azurim. The last two words, hapax legomena, whose most probable meanings are “twisted and strong.” The Slavonic (as also the Russian) considers this a definition to the treasure (treasuries, chests): “bound with rope, cypressed.” The Phoenicians made ropes from white flax (Herod. VII, 25, 34 and others), but in the east were made according to Pliny (XIII, 4, 7) the finest from fibers of palm leaves and papyrus (from which, perhaps, comes the concept 3: ezer, cedar). Ropes and cables were needed by Tyre in great quantity for ships. Esth 3:9 Ezek.27:25. Tarshish ships were your merchant fleet in your trading, and you became rich and very mighty in the midst of the seas.

Ezekiel 27:25. “Tarshish ships.” Although trade of Tyre with Tarshish was already mentioned in verse 12, here Tarshish serves only as an epithet for the ships, expressing the distance of their voyages. The Slavonic: “Carthaginian.” And Tyre had such ships, as a caravan has camels. — “Merchant fleet” — a conjectural meaning of the Hebrew sharot, which the Vulgate translates as principes, the Slavonic “merchants,” and the Targum considers a verb: “brought.” — “In your trading.” The Slavonic “in the multitude of your merchants,” in the number of your numerous trading partners. — “And you became rich and very mighty in the midst of the seas.” The Slavonic more precisely: “and you became satisfied and were weighed down greatly in the hearts of the seas.” The image in view is the heavy cargo of a ship. The discourse returns to the comparison of Tyre with a ship, abandoned since verse 9. Ezek.27:26. Your oarsmen brought you out into the deep waters; the east wind has shattered you in the midst of the seas.

Ezekiel 27:26. The destruction of the ship — Tyre — is described. The cause of it was 1) the reckless boldness with which the pilots led the ship into deep water, that is, the bold policy of the Tyrian government, and 2) the “east wind,” the samum or sirocco (the LXX and Vulgate “south,” because in Palestine it comes from the south), commonly which destroyed many ships in the Mediterranean (; and others), that is, the Chaldeans, cf. . Ezek.27:27. Your wealth and merchandise, all your supplies, your sailors and your captains, those repairing your seams and those carrying on your trade, and all your warriors who are in you, and all the multitude of people who are in you, will sink into the depths of the seas on the day of your fall. Ps 77:26 Acts 27:14 Ezek 17:10

Ezekiel 27:27. The enumeration of all the great and precious contents of the ship strengthens sympathy for its destruction. “Sailors,” “captains” refer back to verse 8, “those repairing your seams” (Slavonic “advisors” in the sense of “engineers”) and “those carrying on your trade” (“to conduct your trade” — verse 9; Slavonic “merchants of your merchants” — perhaps representatives of the partners in trade) — to verse 9, “warriors” — to verses 10 and 11. “All the multitude of people” — perhaps the merchants enumerated from verse 12. At the end of the verse the Slavonic adds against the Hebrew and Greek “and all merchants,” doubtless a gloss on “multitude. Ezek.27:28. At the loud cry of your pilots, the surrounding land will shake.

Ezekiel 27:28. “Surrounding land.” Although the Hebrew miragim in other places has such meaning, yet here it would weaken the force of the idea: the fall of Tyre will alarm not only the surrounding lands; therefore the LXX: “in fear (will be afraid)”; the Vulgate classes. Ezek.27:29. And all the rowers, all the sailors, all the sea pilots, will come down from their ships and stand on the shore;

Ezekiel 27:29. With the destruction of so great a ship (Tyre) no one can feel safe on a ship: the maritime trade of smaller coastal cities (“ships”) will be restricted to land. “Sailors,” Slavonic “riders”; “pilots,” Slavonic “hunters. Ezek.27:30. and they will weep over you bitterly, casting dust on their heads and wallowing in ashes;

Ezekiel 27:30. “Casting dust on their heads,” the Slavonic more precisely: “they will put earth upon their heads” as a sign of mourning; the earth sprinkled on the head in sign of mourning was originally (at the origin of this custom) taken from the grave. — “Will wallow in ashes” — a sign of exceptionally strong grief. Thus the four signs of mourning enumerated in the verse are each stronger than the previous one. But the meaning of “wallow” is disputed for the Hebrew verb palash; the LXX: “spread”; others: “dust themselves (with ash). Ezek.27:31. and they will shave their heads for you, and clothe themselves with sackcloth, and they will weep over you with bitterness of soul, with bitter lamentation;

Ezekiel 27:31. Not in the Vatican and many other codices. “Shave their heads,” “clothe themselves with sackcloth” — signs of mourning, see explanation of . Ezek.27:32. and in their wailing they will take up a lamentation for you, and thus lament over you: “Who is like Tyre, like her being destroyed in the midst of the sea!; Ezek 7:18”

Ezekiel 27:32. “In their wailing” — the Hebrew beneigem allows reading with the LXX; “those in them,” that is, those perished on the ship — Tyre. “Destroyed,” the Slavonic and Vulgate “you became silent,” Targum: “like him. Ezek.27:33. When your goods came from the seas, you satisfied many nations; with the abundance of your wealth and wares you enriched the kings of the earth.

Ezekiel 27:33. The most valuable goods Tyre obtained from the sea. He was only an intermediary in the trade of overseas nations with Asia: “Your wealth,” Slavonic “your merchants,” partners in trade. “Enriched the kings.” Chiefly such goods are meant as gold, purple, precious stones. Ezek.27:34. Now when you are wrecked by the seas in the depths of the waters, your merchandise and all your company have fallen with you.

Ezekiel 27:34. “Wrecked by the seas in the depths of the waters.” The destruction of Tyre by Alexander the Great. “Your merchandise,” the Slavonic again: “your merchants.” At the end of the verse the Slavonic adds against the Hebrew and Greek “and all merchants,” doubtless a gloss on “multitude. Ezek.27:35. All the inhabitants of the islands are appalled at you, and their kings shudder greatly; their faces are convulsed.

Ezekiel 27:35. Especially appalled at the destruction of Tyre are the “islands,” which traded with it and knew it well, which should have lost much from this catastrophe; therefore their “kings” even “shudder greatly,” literally: “their faces were twisted,” Slavonic: “their face wept. Ezek.27:36. The merchants among the peoples hiss at you; you have become a terror, and you shall be no more forever.”

Ezekiel 27:36. On the contrary, Tyre’s competitors in trade could not but regard the destruction of it with malice. — “Hiss.” The highest degree of malice and horror: ; ; ; . — “You have become a terror,” the Slavonic “in destruction,” the Vulgate ad nihilum, which is essentially the same: complete annihilation cannot fail to inspire the most terrible horror. — “You shall be no more forever.” The most dreadful and truly eternal curse. The end of the discourse is devastating. On the contrary, Tyre’s competitors in trade could not but regard the destruction of it with malice. — “Hiss.” The highest degree of malice and horror: ; ; ; . — “You have become a terror,” the Slavonic “in destruction,” the Vulgate ad nihilum, which is essentially the same: complete annihilation cannot fail to inspire the most terrible horror. — “You shall be no more forever.” The most dreadful and truly eternal curse. The end of the discourse is devastating. 1 Sam 9:8 Jer 19:8 Zeph 2:15 Lam 2:15