Introduction

Psalm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151

Name of the book. Number of psalms

In the Hebrew Bible, this book is called “tehillim” or “sefer tehillim,” meaning praise or the Book of Praises, while in the Greek Bible it is called “ψαλτήριον.” This Greek name denoted a stringed instrument resembling our guitar, by which the songs of the Psalter were in ancient times accompanied during performance among the Jews. The entire Book of the Psalter consists of 151 songs, the first 150 of which are of canonical authority, while the last—the 151st—is of non-canonical authority. Each of these songs, despite many particular peculiarities in its content and external form of expression, shares in common with all others that the subject and source of their composition and the inspiration of their authors is God and His manifold properties and deeds, displayed in external nature and in human life. Therefore, the Hebrew name of the book indicates the essential, inner character of the content of the psalms as songs of praise to God, while the Greek title refers to the external manner of their performance with the accompaniment of a stringed instrument.

Writers of the psalms

All psalms have numerical designation, but in addition to this, over many of them are found the names of persons preceded by the Hebrew particle “le,” which indicates the attribution of that psalm to the named person—for example, “le David,” “le Shelomo,” and others. Such headings mean that the given psalms were written—one by David, another by Solomon, and so forth. Besides David and Solomon, the headings over the psalms also contain the names of Moses, Asaph, Heman, Jeduthun, and the sons of Korah, preceded usually by the same particle “le.” This shows that among the writers of the Psalter were the persons just mentioned.

That the writers of the Psalter were many persons is testified to by the very content of the psalms themselves and by the diversity of external form in the expression of their thoughts. In the psalms, for example, there are indications of events from the pre-Davidic period (Ps 89), the Davidic period (Ps 2-5 and many others), the pre-exile period (Ps 90, Ps 94 and others), the time of the Babylonian captivity (Ps 84, Ps 105, Ps 104, Ps 136 and others), and the post-exile period (Ps 117, Ps 119, Ps 122, Ps 124 and others). Thus, the span of time encompassed by the content of the psalms exceeds the average duration of human life many times over, and a single person could not have been a witness to and depicter of the events indicated by the Psalter.

There is also a difference among the psalms in the manner of depicting similar subjects. If one compares, for example, Ps 4 with Ps 79 or with Ps 136, one cannot fail to notice that, though dealing with similar subjects in content (the depiction of enemies and one’s relation to them), they differ in the unfolding of these subjects and in the portrayal of the authors’ attitudes toward them. In Ps 4, the author, pursued by enemies, trusts in God’s help and addresses his enemies with gentle exhortation to reconsider, to examine the motives of their actions, and, while there is yet time, to bring repentance before God and reform themselves; in Ps 79, the author depicts his position as hopeless and the power of his enemies as irresistible, himself as completely forsaken by God; in Ps 136, however, the enemies awaken in the writer a feeling of hatred and a longing for their destruction. Such a difference in the way these psalms depict their relations to enemies, testifying to the dissimilarity of their authors’ feelings, indicates that they were written by different persons, not one person, because it would be impossible for one person to experience different and even opposing feelings in similar circumstances. The great diversity in the methods of expressing thoughts and in the literary devices employed (which will be discussed in more detail below) also points to the origin of the Psalter from several persons, not from a single writer. Moreover, in 2 Chr 29:30 we find direct indication that in the time of Hezekiah God was praised “by the words of David and Asaph the prophet.” By this testimony, Asaph is recognized as the author and is given importance in the composition of songs equal to David’s, which indicates that the writers of the Psalter were recognized to be more than one person.

An opinion existed in antiquity (held by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, John Chrysostom, and others), and was sometimes maintained in later times, that the Psalter belonged to David alone. In support of this opinion, they point to the fact that: 1) in certain places of Holy Scripture, in descriptions of worship conducted by the ancient Hebrews, only the name of David is mentioned as the creator of the church songs (for example, 2 Chr 7:6; Ezra 3:10); 2) in the New Testament, certain psalms that do not have headings in the Hebrew Bible are considered psalms of David (Acts 4:25); 3) among the ancient Hebrews and likewise in the early Christian church, it was customary to call the entire Psalter Davidic, that is, written by David alone. The names of other persons found in the headings over the psalms, besides David, and the content of the psalms, which points to times after David, they attempt to explain as indications of performers to whom David originally designated them, and as the gift of prophecy which he possessed and by which he was able to foresee and describe events even after his time.

The opinion opposite to the one just presented was not universal in antiquity. Many fathers and teachers of the church held the view concerning the Psalter that it was a work not of one person but of several (for example, Origen, Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Jerome, and others), and this opinion is now the predominant one among scholars. The very passages of Holy Scripture which defenders of the first opinion bring forward in its support have a different meaning. For example, 2 Chr 7:6, as well as Heb 4, contain not a determination of the Psalter’s origin from David, not an indication of the name of the author of this book, but express the common designation of it which prevailed at that time; the First Book of Ezra (Ezra 3:10) gives only a general indication of the order of worship which was established by David and which the Hebrews in captivity could not observe, but which, now after their return from captivity, was restored in all its solemnity and fullness. Only the testimony of the Book of Acts, where its writer, citing a saying from the 2nd psalm, calls it the words “of David’s servant,” gives an exact indication of the name of the author of that psalm, but not of the entire Psalter. The explanation of the headings of persons other than David as indicating the first performers of the psalms is arbitrary; if before these names, as before the name of David, stands the particle “le,” and if psalms with David’s name in the heading are considered to be written by David himself, then by logical consistency all other psalms should be considered written by those persons whose names appear in the headings above them. The attempt of defenders of the first opinion to explain the content of the psalms which point to events after David’s time by the gift of prophecy possessed by David is erroneous: in the content of many songs in the Psalter are found features depicting the external, accidental position of the persons involved (Ps 136), or indication of new geographical localities (Ps 71:10), with which prophecy does not concern itself: the sphere of prophecy includes only that which has as its subject the revelation of the state of God’s Kingdom on earth, subjects from the realm of messianic and religious-moral life, to which much of the content of the Psalter has no relation. In view of all the foregoing, the reference to the universally established custom of calling the Psalter Davidic has a different significance: since the majority of psalms in the Psalter belonged to David, and since his poetic talent was diverse and powerful, subsequent writers sought to imitate him both in the content of their psalms and in the external form of expression; thus, David, both externally and internally, predominates in the Psalter. If the latter is called by his name, this should be understood not in a literal but in a relative sense, just as the Book of Proverbs is called Solomon’s, though he wrote only the greater part of it.

The following writers of psalms are known by name: Moses, David, Solomon, Asaph, Heman, Ethan, also called Jeduthun, and the sons of Korah. According to time and circumstances of their origin, as well as by the quantity of psalms they wrote, the latter are distributed among the mentioned persons as follows: To Moses belongs one (Ps 89), written by him at the conclusion of the forty years of wandering in the desert and in view of the promised land, into which at that time only a new generation of people born in the desert could enter, and from those who came out of Egypt only those who at the time of the exodus were not yet twenty years old. The death of all the rest was explained by their unfaithfulness and offense against Jehovah during this wandering. The content of the psalm is permeated with a feeling of gratitude to God for granting the Hebrews a blessed and fertile land, sorrow for the person who by his conduct provokes the wrath of God, and prayer to Him for mercy and intercession for mankind. These three motifs—grateful, sorrowful, and prayerful—become the predominant ones throughout the entire subsequent content of the Psalter, appearing sometimes in their pure form, sometimes combined with others. According to the headings of the Hebrew and Russian Bible, David wrote 73 psalms, while according to the Greek-Slavonic Bible, 87. This difference in the quantity of psalms attributed to David is explained by the fact that in determining the origin of psalms not marked with the names of writers in the Hebrew Bible, the Seventy translators were guided by the traditions which had come down to them from the Hebrews regarding these psalms, and tradition attributed them to David. But in view of the inconsistency of this tradition with the content of some of the psalms attributed to David, it cannot always be accepted as a guide in determining the writer and circumstances of their origin (for example, psalms 90, 92, 93, 94, and others). All the psalms belonging to David as author number 73. They are as follows: from those marked with his name in the Hebrew Bible 73 psalms: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 85, 100, 102, 107, 108, 109, 121, 123, 130, 132, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, and from those not marked in the Hebrew Bible but regarding which the origin from David can be established, the following five: 1, 2, 32, 105, 137.

All of David’s psalms, in their content, represent a lyrical account of the events of his life, beginning with his first anointing by Samuel and ending with the final years of his reign. There is no single important event to which David did not respond with his songs, and his life presented a great number and variety of such events, which explains the great number and variety of his psalms. In this respect, David’s psalms constitute a rich body of material, which supplements the accounts of his life found in the historical books, which for the most part relate the external history of his life, while in the psalms are contained depictions of his thoughts and feelings, which present an abundant source for understanding the spiritual character of this “sweet singer of Israel” (2 Sam 23:1).

The external history of David’s life is well-known. From the position of a simple shepherd in the family of Jesse from the tribe of Judah, he, through his talents and exploits, became a national hero, attained the crown of the Hebrew king, and acquired such popularity and love from his subjects that his name and deeds constitute and continue to form the brightest page in Hebrew history and an object of national pride. Such a great distance between the two poles of social position (that of simple citizen and crowned king) and historical fame (shepherd in his own family and national hero) was traversed by a series of outstanding exploits and extraordinary hardships, so that there are few figures in the history of mankind whose lives present a series of reversals similar to those experienced by David.

David’s first rise to public fame began at the time of his triumphant single combat with Goliath, the giant of the Philistines. When two armies—the Hebrews and the Philistines—met near the valley of Socoh, occupying the hills adjacent to it, neither one dared to descend into the valley to begin battle, because the local conditions made such an action risky for them. Therefore, both armies stood idle. Then Goliath came forth and challenged one of the Hebrews to single combat with him; none of them dared to engage with him in battle. For forty days Goliath mocked the Hebrews, and they were forced silently to endure his cutting remarks and insults to their national honor. When David, who had brought food to his brothers, heard these insults, a strong desire arose in him to wipe away this shame from the Hebrews, and he entered, apparently, into an unequal struggle for himself. It ended in victory. The name of David, who had wiped away the shame from the Hebrews, became popular and was set above that of Saul; he was celebrated everywhere in popular songs: “Saul has slain his thousands, and David his tens of thousands.” From this time on, jealousy entered into Saul, and as the fame and popularity of the latter grew, based on a whole series of his brilliant military exploits, Saul’s jealousy turned into hatred and prompted him to make attempts on David’s life and to pursue him with a whole series of persecutions. David escaped by fleeing. During his flight David became known to the people for the gentleness of his character, sincere piety, practical resourcefulness, military foresight and courage, so that, with the death of Saul, he soon became king first of the tribe of Judah alone, and then of all twelve tribes. David’s reign was beneficial for the Hebrews. He expanded the boundaries of his kingdom, secured its borders by victories over neighboring foreign peoples, established greater cohesion among the previously dispersed and mutually hostile tribes, reorganized the army more properly, improved the administration of justice by eliminating arbitrary decisions on the part of tribal representatives through the granting of the right of appeal to the king, transferred the Ark of the Covenant from Kiriath-Jearim to Jerusalem, introduced and established proper order in the performance of worship, giving it an unexpected character of solemnity through the introduction of properly organized choirs and music, and began to prepare material for the construction of a new temple. But his reign was also darkened by some unfortunate events. David’s transgression with Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah were accompanied by family misfortunes: the rebellion of Absalom, and later that of Adonijah, his sons. During the first rebellion he was forced to flee from Jerusalem and to endure the mockery of the adherents of his son. His people were struck by a plague that carried off many victims. These events, as we see, profoundly affected David.

David exemplified a nature richly endowed with physical and spiritual powers. Of modest height, solidly built, fair-haired, with blue eyes, he possessed great muscular strength and agility, which he often displayed even in his youth in struggles with lions, from whose mouths he could snatch sheep that they had stolen. At the same time, he was distinguished by great endurance and mobility. The frequent and prolonged persecutions by Saul, numerous military campaigns, and later in mature age, his flight from Absalom, when David had to keep moving from place to place without often having any provisions with him, provide vivid testimony to this. Furthermore, David’s ability to treat everyone kindly, his refusal to avenge personal offenses (the story of Saul and Shimei), his impartiality in judicial matters, the love shown him by priests, Levites, and prophets, his ability to unite into one the previously dispersed tribes, and his subsequent care for the construction of the temple and for worship, reveal in him a gentle character, deep respect for human dignity, administrative insight and tact, and sincere, heartfelt piety. The most outstanding and characteristic features in David are a highly developed emotional nature, a region of feeling and sentiment, and what appears to be an inexhaustible poetic talent. The first trait explains, apparently, strange actions, sometimes impractical, and sometimes direct transgressions, when David spares a known enemy of his (Saul), or when he enters into relations with Bathsheba, yielding to feelings of infatuation with her external, physical beauty. But to the extent that such feeling toward the latter was sincere and fleeting, to that extent was David’s consciousness of his sinfulness before God deep and enduring, and his repentance before Him. The latter was explained by the loftiness of David’s understanding of God and the corresponding strict attitude he took toward himself. Violation of God’s commandments seemed to him the greatest affront to the All-Holy Being, and therefore it aroused in David a consciousness of complete sinfulness before Him, in which his fall seemed so profound that he considered it beyond the power of a human being to raise himself from it. In such cases, David reached complete denial of any good deeds in himself, and his only prayerful appeal was: “Have mercy on me, O Lord, according to Your great compassion on mankind.”

David’s strong poetic talent explains the abundance of his songs, with which he responded to all outstanding events of his personal and public life. His poetry, belonging to the genre of pure lyric, is distinguished by the multiplicity of its forms. There are elegies here (penitential psalms—6, 31, 37, 50, and others), there are laudatory pieces approaching our odes (17, 18, 103, 104, and others), there are pieces resembling our songs, only with a religious subject (8, 44, and others), and there are messianic-prophetic ones (2, 15, 21, and others). One cannot fail to note the particular feature of the songs that David in all of them remains faithful to his teleological view of everything existing in the world, both in the life of people and nature and in the realm of God’s relations with mankind and mankind’s relations with God. The entire world, according to him, beginning with an ordinary phenomenon like the rising and setting of the sun, the order of day and night succession, the seasons, the arrangement of the inorganic, organic, and animal worlds, and especially mankind, is full of enchanting harmony, reasonableness, and beauty. That same reasonableness and beauty reign in God’s relation to mankind and mankind’s relation to God. God, bestowing upon mankind mercy and protection in the present, prepares him for great future blessings through the coming of the Messiah; mankind, on the other hand, by maintaining constant and firm faith in God, showing Him obedience, and cultivating in himself “a humble spirit and a contrite heart,” thereby includes himself in the realm of His great promises. Thus, David by his views was an aesthete, one able to find, point out, and appreciate beauty where the cold intellect sees only a series of ordinary phenomena, objects, and thoughts. By directing the human spirit toward the higher world of perceiving divine harmony, David’s songs had important social and political significance. They made his subjects familiar with the views and wishes of their sovereign, and therefore they were manifestations of the king to his people, a program of his reign, where each knew what to hold to and what was contrary to the will of their ruler.

The whole series of reversals experienced by David in his life never weakened his spirit but, on the contrary, provided rich material for his creative genius. A whole series of songs was composed by him at all the outstanding events of his life. Thus, for example, the psalms written by him, according to the events that prompted their composition, may be distributed as follows: psalm 8 was written after David’s anointing by Samuel, 143—after David’s victory over Goliath, 7, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 21, 26, 30, 33, 34, 35, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 68, 69, 70, 107, 108, 141—on account of persecutions by Saul; 5, 10, 25, 40, 54, 57, 63, 139 relate to the time of Absalom’s rebellion, before David’s flight from Jerusalem; 3, 4, 22, 24, 27, 36, 60, 61, 62, 85, 140—from the day of his flight from Jerusalem: 1, 2, 9, 19, 20, 67, 109, 123 were written on account of the wars conducted by David; 14, 23, 29, 121, 132, 130, 100—on account of the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant, in connection with care for the construction of the temple, and on account of circumstances related and attending thereto; 6, 31, 32, 37, 38, 50, 142 are connected mainly with David’s transgression with Bathsheba and indirectly with Absalom’s rebellion; 18, 28, 39, 102, 103, 64, 137, 138, 144—on account of the promises given to David by God and other events of his life.

Solomon wrote three psalms: 71, 126, and 131. This king, who represented an almost complete opposite to David in the structure of his character and thought (the latter was a man of active deed, public-minded, lyrical in the character of his literary works with feeling predominating over other faculties, an aesthete in his views; the former was a man of the study, a thinker, philosopher—an analyst, a keen observer with a strongly developed formal, logical ability to structure thoughts), in his youth and in the first years of his reign, when feeling in a person gets the upper hand over the cold rational side, paid tribute to the latter by the creation of the mentioned psalms.

Perhaps he was guided in his choice of this form of work by a desire to follow his father, whose songs captivated the entire people and provoked many imitations. These psalms were written: 71—at his accession to the throne after the prayer at Gibeon, 126—at the completion of the construction of the temple, and 131—on the occasion of the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant from the tabernacle into the temple. In these psalms there is a noticeable rational tone of exposition and more, in comparison with David’s songs, artificiality in the construction and development of thoughts.

The name of Asaph appears in the heading over the following 12 psalms: 49, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, and 82. The psalmist Asaph is known as a Levite of David’s time, descended from the tribe of Gershon, son of Berechiah. Together with his four sons, he presided over four choirs of David’s singers, was the chief director of sacred music and singing before the tabernacle on Mount Zion. This contemporary of David also possessed poetic talent and was the creator of some psalms which, on an equal footing with David’s songs, entered into ecclesiastical and public use (2 Chr 29:30). How original his talent was and how much it was valued both by his contemporaries and by subsequent generations of the Hebrew people is evident from the fact that his songs were valued equally with David’s songs, and his descendants, reverencing the name and genius of their ancestor, concealed their own names over the psalms they composed under the name of their progenitor. Asaph was extraordinarily devoted to David and linked his fate with David’s life; therefore, it is understandable that the chief material for his songs he took from the history and life of David. To Asaph, a contemporary of David, belong the following five psalms: 49, 72, 77, 80, and 81. The remaining seven psalms—73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, and 82—belong to the descendants of Asaph (the Asaphites).

All psalms with the name of Asaph are distinguished by a tone of insistent exhortation addressed to the Hebrews for their instruction. With this purpose, the author introduces much historical material into the content of the psalms and loves to depict God as an All-Righteous Judge. By pointing to the divine benefactions bestowed in the past history of the Hebrew people, the writer seeks to awaken in the people a feeling of attachment and gratitude to Him, and by depicting God as a Judge, to terrify the people in their present evil conduct and to urge them toward improvement.

To Heman, of the tribe of Kohath, belongs the 87th psalm; to Ethan, otherwise called Jeduthun, of the tribe of Merari, belongs the 88th psalm. Both these persons were contemporaries of David and singers at the newly established tabernacle by him. They trace their descent from the well-known Korah, who rebelled in the time of Moses. They were Levites and stood, like Asaph, at the head of David’s singers. In the Hebrew Bible they are called Ezrahites, that is, descended from the line of Zerah, son of the patriarch Judah, not because they were his direct descendants but because they lived for a long time in the tribe of Judah among the descendants of Zerah; in the same way, the Levite Zuph (one of the ancestors of Samuel) is called an Ephraimite on account of his residence in that tribe (1 Sam 1:1). These persons, as the psalms composed by them show, were independent singers and writers as much as Asaph and David were. Moreover, they distinguished themselves by wisdom, so that they are compared with Solomon (1 Sam 4:31). Both psalms are very similar in content. It is possible to determine with considerable precision the time and reason for their origin. They were written, as is evident from their content, in the time of David, when the latter received a revelation concerning the perpetuation of his descendants forever and when he experienced “reproach” from enemies. Such circumstances coincide with the time of persecution by Absalom. These psalms are distinguished by a strongly expressed individuality of their writers: their content is pervaded by a gloomy feeling. Evidently, the circumstances they were experiencing had a depressing effect upon them and aroused the most gloomy disposition.

The sons of Korah wrote the psalms: 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 83, 84, and 86, that is, 11 psalms. They were the descendants of Korah and preserved the designation by the name of this ancestor, probably as a lesson to themselves. It was their duty as Levites to watch over the piety of the conduct of worshippers in the temple courtyard and to maintain the cleanliness of the courtyard. Their family was distinguished by devotion to David and, together with him, shared his flight, so that in the psalms of this period the main subject of content is a sorrowful account of the feelings about the misfortunes experienced by David and, during the flight, the forced removal from the temple. The sons of Korah remained servants at the temple throughout the entire history of the Hebrew people, and throughout this entire period among them were found richly gifted natures who left behind poetic works that entered into the composition of the Psalter.

The remaining 44 psalms (65, 66, 90–99, 101, 104–106, 110–120, 122, 124, 125, 127–129, 133–136, and 145–151) belong to unknown writers.

Headings over the psalms

All psalms in the Psalter have numerical designation. Besides the last one, they have other headings, which can be distributed into the following five groups:

1) Indications of the kind of song or character of its content, for example:

a) “Prayer” (16, 85, 89, and 101) indicates petitionary content;

b) “Praise” (94, 144) shows by its very name the laudatory, God-glorifying content;

c) “Teaching” (31, 41, 87, and others), that is, in these songs the authors set forth their perplexities concerning the events they experience, their reflections;

d) “Stone inscription” Hebrew “miktam,” Greek στηλογραφία. This term is not sufficiently clear; it can be understood either in the sense of an indication of the value of the content which deserved to be written on a stone in remembrance for posterity, or in the sense of an indication of the external, epigrammatic manner of writing.

2) Headings indicating the manner of performance:

a) “Psalm,” the most common heading in the Psalter, indicates performance of the given song on the “Psaltery,” a stringed instrument resembling a guitar;

b) “Song” indicates vocal performance. The mixed designation “psalm of a song” or “song of a psalm” or “song psalm” indicates that in the first case the chief means of performance should be music with vocal accompaniment following it, while in the second case the reverse;

c) “Upon stringed instruments” (4, 53, and others), that is, “upon musical instruments,” means that the given work is appointed either for singing in general (Slavonic text) or for playing upon instruments (Russian translation);

d) “Upon the eight-stringed” (6 and 11) indicates singing in the octave, in a low voice, octavo voce;

e) “Upon the vinepresses” (8; 80, 83)—in the Russian translation “upon the Gethite instrument.” Probably this was the name of a zither borrowed by David from the Philistine city of Gath. At the same time, it can be thought that the first name “upon the vinepresses” also indicates the time of using the psalm during the harvest of grapes, for the pressing of which a hollowed-out trough with holes pierced in the bottom, called a vinepress, was employed;

f) Slavonic “upon the changed”—in the Russian translation “upon the musical instrument Shoshan” (44th Psalm). The Slavonic name indicates the changeable instruments by which the psalm should be performed, while the Russian refers to the instrument itself, resembling a lily (shoshan);

g) Slavonic “upon the secret of the son,”—(9th Psalm), in Russian “at the death of Labane.” The Slavonic heading is incomprehensible, while the Russian is explained as an indication of the reason for writing, the death of Ahithophel. Some from the Hebrew read: “upon the musical instrument alamoth,” with the latter word derived from “alma”—maiden, and this term means to sing like a maiden, in a thin voice, soprano. It is understood also in the sense of an indication of singing according to a known melody beginning with this word;

h) There are also headings “upon Mahalath,” “do not destroy” (56, 57, 58, and 74), “at the appearing of dawn” (21), and “upon the dove, silent in distant places” (55). These headings are explained as indications of songs beginning with the mentioned words, according to the pattern of which the indicated psalms should be performed. In the Psalter two terms frequently appear: (Slavonic Bible) “to the end” and “Selah.” The first name means in general “for ending,” for final performance in the manner which is indicated by another word of the heading, for example, “to the end psalm,” that is, for final performance upon the Psaltery. “Selah,” appearing in the midst of psalms, means a pause, after which the performance of the psalm should commence with another part of the choir or upon different instruments. This pause and change in the musical-vocal performance was usually indicated by a beat on the drum.

3) Indications of the writer or performer of the psalm, for example, “a psalm of David,” “Asaph,” “a prayer of Moses,” and others, where the name of the person is an indication of the author of the psalm; there is also sometimes a direct indication of the performer, for example, “to the chief musician, Jeduthun,” that is, for final performance by the chief of the choir Jeduthun.

4) Indications of the reason for writing the psalm, for example, “a psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom, his son” (Ps 3:1), “a song at the dedication of the house” (29), that is, at the dedication of the place for the construction of an altar (see also 17, 33, 50, and others).

5) Headings indicating the liturgical purpose, time, and place of performance of the psalms, for example, “a song on the Sabbath day” (91), “a psalm of David, at the completion of the Feast of Tabernacles” (28), that is, at the end of the Feast of Tabernacles, and others. There is an entire section of psalms headed “a song of degrees,” translated in Russian as “a song of ascent” (119, 135). This name is explained as an indication that the mentioned psalms were performed by Levites on the steps of the temple during the procession carrying and sanctifying water from the Siloam spring by the high priest, or (in Russian) that the mentioned psalms were sung by Hebrews upon their return from captivity, from the Babylonian plain, to their native Palestine; it is also customary for all pilgrims to sing these psalms when they see Jerusalem and when ascending Mount Zion, to which they were directed at the great festivals.

Liturgical use of the psalms among the ancient Hebrews and in the Orthodox Church

The beginning of the public ecclesiastical use of the psalms was established by David in his care for the more solemn arrangement of worship. He built a new tabernacle in Jerusalem, to which the Ark of the Covenant was transferred.

For the first time David gave his psalm for liturgical performance after the transfer of the Ark to Jerusalem; subsequently the psalms composed by him received the same purpose. Besides David, psalms were also composed by other persons, Ethan and the sons of Korah, so that by the end of his life the number of new liturgical songs was very considerable and distinguished by diversity of content. The order of use of the psalms of the Psalter was established as follows: a special psalm was appointed for each day, and for days of festivals: Passover, Pentecost, Tabernacles, and others—special psalms appointed for them. Thus on the first day of the week psalm 23 was sung, on the second—47, on the third—71, on the fourth—93, on the fifth—80, on the sixth—92, and on the seventh—the Sabbath—91 and the Prayer of Moses (89th Psalm). For the above-mentioned solemn festivals there were later appointed the so-called hallel or “Alleluia” psalms (112–117). They were also sung at the new months.

David introduced the use of musical instruments in worship. The purpose of these instruments was to enhance the power of the singers’ voices, so that it would be inaccurate to understand their significance only as accompaniment. All psalms were sung in the vocal range of the singers, and musical accompaniment was constructed in unison with the choirs, and both singing and music were distinguished by loudness, “played before God with all their might,” so as to “loudly proclaim the voice of rejoicing” (1 Chr 13:8).

The musical instruments were quite diverse: lyres, tympani, psalteries, cymbals, and trumpets. They can be divided into three types: A) stringed, B) wind, and C) percussion. To the first belong: 1) “Kinnor,” the most commonly used instrument. It represents a wooden triangle stretched lengthwise with the intestines of animals. The number of strings was 6, 10, 24, and 47; on the few-stringed ones they played with a bow, while on the many-stringed ones they played with the fingers. 2) “Kinir,” a later instrument, was used in times of mourning, while the first—in times of joy. 3) “Kitros” or “sambuca” in the form of ^ with sharp sounds. This is a kinnor of small size, used by women. 4) “Symphony”—an arch with three strings. 5) “Psaltery” (a more recent instrument, appearing around the time of the Babylonian captivity)—a resonant box, along whose opening were passed double or triple strings, numbering 10; they played with the fingers or with a bow. 6) “Nevel” differed from the kinnor in that playing on the first depended on the modification of sounds of one and the same strings, while on the kinnor it depended on the variety of strings. Nevel is a prototype of the Spanish guitar.

B) 1) “Keren”—a curved horn trumpet, which announced festivals, new moons, jubilees. 2) A straight trumpet, made of copper, silver, or wood. This trumpet had a more significant purpose in the temple than the keren: it was used at the sacrifice of peace and at the dispatch of soldiers into battle. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the Hebrews used the keren in memory of their humiliation, as a more crude and simple instrument. Wind music in general was poorly developed among the Hebrews.

C) 1) A hand drum in the form of a vase covered with skin, which was struck with iron rods. Most of all it was used for dances and merriment. 2) Like our tambourine—a board decorated with jingles. It was used by mourning women. 3) “Cymbals”—copper plates struck against one another. There were also small cymbals used in dances.

All the mentioned instruments, each having in itself a special purpose, as one can think from the saying of the Book of Chronicles quoted above, entered into the orchestra of the temple instruments and were used in worship. The whole orchestra, as we said, played in unison with the choir; from the content of some psalms (41, 42, 106, and others) it is evident that among the Hebrews there was also antiphonal singing, when one choir began and another continued the begun psalm or repeated after it some refrain. The people also took part in the singing.

In Christian worship, the Psalter enjoys the widest use. The beginning of this was established by Jesus Christ Himself, when He, after the completion of the Last Supper, “sang” and went to the Mount of Olives (Matt 26:30). Jesus celebrated Passover according to the custom of the Jews, which required the performance of the small hallel (laudatory psalms 112–117). Following the example of Christ, the apostles also, in establishing churches and arranging worship there, commanded the use of the Psalter as the best means in Christian prayer (Eph 5:18-19; Col 3:16; 1 Cor 14:15). In the first three centuries, as evidenced by the “Apostolic Constitutions” (book 2, chapter 59), the Psalter was an essential part of every worship service. In the fourth century, for convenience of use, the Psalter was divided into 20 kathismas (that is, sittings, because after the conclusion of singing the appointed psalms, when the patristic writings and lives of the saints were read, one could sit, while the psalms were heard standing), each kathisma was then divided into three doxa (the words: glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit).

The present use of the Psalter in the Orthodox Church is determined by a special ordinance concerning it. By this ordinance the use of the Psalter during the year is divided into four periods.

The first period extends from the Sunday of Antipassover to September 22 (to the end of the celebration of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross). At Vespers on the Saturday of Bright Week, the 1st kathisma is read (Psalms 1–8); at Matins of Thomas Sunday, kathismas 2 and 3 (Psalms 9–16 and 17–23); on other Sundays, the 17th kathisma is read (Ps 118). Kathismas are not appointed on Sunday Vespers throughout the year. For each six days of the week the remaining kathismas are read: one at Vespers, two at Matins. At Midnight prayers of Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday throughout the year, the 17th kathisma is read, while on Saturday, always the 9th kathisma (Psalms 64–69).

The second period extends from September 22 to December 19. In this period at Matins from Monday to Saturday, three sequential kathismas are appointed, while at Vespers, the 18th kathisma (Psalms 119–133); at Matins on Sunday, to the two sequential kathismas (2 and 3), the singing of Psalms 134 and 135 are added.

The third period is from December 20 to the butter-milk week. At the beginning of this period until January 14 (the end of the celebration of the Epiphany), the Psalter is used as in the first period, that is, two kathismas at Matins and one sequential kathisma at Vespers. From January 15 to the Saturday before the week “of the prodigal son,” three kathismas are appointed at Matins and the 18th kathisma at Vespers. On Sunday of the week of the “prodigal son,” butter-milk week, and butter week, after the polieleon psalms (134 and 135), is sung (Ps 136)—“by the rivers of Babylon.” In the butter week and butter-milk week at Matins, two kathismas are appointed, while at Vespers one sequential kathisma.

The fourth period includes the Great Lent. During the six weeks of the fast, each week the Psalter is read twice, mainly at Matins and at the Hours. On Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of the fifth week at Vespers, a special kathisma is appointed for each day, while on these five days of the other weeks of Lent, the 18th kathisma is appointed at Vespers. On Passion Week the kathismas are read up to Thursday at Matins and at the Hours; from Thursday the Psalter is set aside until Thomas Sunday; only on Great Saturday at Matins is the 17th kathisma sung with refrains.

Besides the kathismas, the following psalms are used at morning and evening worship: the “prefatory” 103 at Vespers—140, 141, and 129; at the small compline “penitential”—50, 69, 142; at the daily Midnight prayers, Psalms 50, 120, and 133; at Matins—19 and 20; at the six-psalm—3, 37, 62, 87, 102, and 142, and the laudatory (148–150). At the first hour—psalms 5, 69, and 100, which are part of the morning service; at the third hour—16, 24, and 59; at the sixth hour—53, 54, and 90; the last two hours are read during the performance of the proskomedia; at the ninth hour, which is part of the evening service, are read Psalms 83, 64, and 85.

In the Christian Church, the psalms are read and sung. Singing is of three types: “antiphonal” for two choirs or with a cantor proclaiming part of the psalm which the choir repeats after him; “notated,” distinguished by the diversity of its harmony and melody; and “simple,” resembling recitative singing. Instrumental music is not accepted in Orthodox worship. This is because in Orthodox worship they strive to distinguish the content of the songs, which can teach those praying, while instrumental music can hinder the understanding of the thoughts contained in the hymns; hence the task of the choir, besides proper execution of vocal music, is clarity and distinctness of pronunciation. In the Catholic Church and among Protestants, however, instrumental music has been introduced in worship as a necessary element of temple worship. By this introduction, the aim pursued is not so much to give definite content to the thought of one praying, as among the Orthodox, but rather to affect the disposition of one praying with harmonious and melodious musical sounds.

Collection of psalms into one body

The Psalter in its present form could not have appeared all at once. The time of origin of the songs comprising it occupies a space of about 8 centuries, from Moses to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. This compels us to assume that at first there were among the Hebrews collections of certain psalms which were subsequently joined together. The existence of collections is indicated by the present composition of the Psalter. The entire collection is divided into five parts: the sign of division is the liturgical ending, which is encountered in the Psalter four times: after the 40th psalm, “Blessed is the Lord, God of Israel, from of old and to eternity! Amen, amen!” (Ps 40:14); after the 71st psalm, “Blessed is the Lord, God of Israel, the only one who does wonders; and blessed be His glorious name forever, and may all the earth be filled with His glory; Amen and amen” (Ps 71:18-19), before the 72nd psalm there is a note: “ended are the prayers of David, son of Jesse” (Ps 71:20). These last words clearly show that there were collections of songs of David, which bore the name of their author, probably in distinction from the collections of songs of other authors that existed then. After the 105th psalm—“Blessed is the Lord, God of Israel, from of old and to eternity! And may all the people say: Amen! Alleluia!” (Ps 105:48). The four liturgical endings just cited divide the entire Psalter into the following five parts: the first contains Psalms 1–40, the second 41–71, the third 72–88, the fourth 89–105, and the fifth 106–150. The time of appearance and formation of these collections can be determined with greater probability as follows: the first collection appeared in the time of David. Its composition was prompted by liturgical needs. David composed and gave the psalms he wrote for ecclesiastical and public use. In this case he needed to indicate which songs and to whom he was appointing them, when and how to perform them, which could be achieved only by collecting such songs in one collection. In the second collection there are psalms belonging to the sons of Korah and written no earlier than the time of King Jehoshaphat and no later than the age of King Hezekiah (for example, Psalms 45, 46, and 47); therefore, the second part of the Psalter could appear only after David. The collection of psalms in this part can be referred to the times of King Hezekiah, who was distinguished by a love for the collection of sacred works (during his time, for example, the Book of Proverbs was compiled). When the remaining groups of psalms were composed and added to the first two parts cannot be said with certainty; it is supposed, for example, that the third part of the Psalter also appeared during the time of Hezekiah; it is certain only that the joining together of all parts of the Psalter into the present form belongs to the times of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the canon of the Old Testament sacred books in general was established.

Division of psalms by content. Widespread use of the Psalter

The Psalter is the work of many authors and consists of 150 songs, each of which is a complete and finished lyrical work, written at a known historical occasion and containing the expression of the thoughts and feelings experienced and lived through by its creators under given circumstances. In dependence on the diversity of the historical circumstances of the origin of the psalms, the content of the latter is distinguished by such a wealth of thoughts and feelings that strict and precise division of all the psalms by content into definite groups is impossible. The multi-subject character of the Psalter’s content drew attention to itself in ancient times. We shall cite several assessments of the Psalter. St. Athanasius the Great says: “The book of psalms seems to me clearly and in detail to depict all human life, all states of the spirit, all movements of the mind, and there is nothing in a human being which it does not contain. Do you wish to repent, to confess, is sorrow and temptation pressing upon you, are you being pursued and plots are being made against you; does despair possess you or anxiety, or do you suffer something similar; do you strive for advancement in virtue and see that the enemy is hindering you, do you wish to praise, give thanks, and glorify the Lord, in the divine psalms you will find instruction concerning all this. St. Basil the Great writes: “Everything that is useful in all the books of Holy Scripture the book of psalms contains within itself. It prophesies about the future, brings to remembrance past events, gives laws for life, proposes rules for activity. In short, the Psalter is a common spiritual treasury of good instructions, and everyone will find in it abundantly what is useful for himself. It heals both old and recent wounds of the soul; it gives comfort to the recently afflicted; it strengthens the weak, protects the healthy, and destroys the passions that dominate human life. The psalm brings peace to the soul, produces peace, tames stormy and turbulent thoughts. It softens the angry soul and makes the lustful soul chaste. The psalm creates friendship, unites the scattered, and reconciles the warring. What will the Psalter not teach you? From it you will learn the greatness of courage, the strictness of justice, the honor of chastity, the perfection of prudence, the measure of repentance, the measure of patience, and every good that you can name. Here is perfect theology, here is prophecy of the coming of Christ in the flesh, here is the threat of God’s judgment. Here is taught hope of resurrection and fear of torment. Here is promised glory, mysteries are revealed. Everything is in the book of psalms, as in a great and universal treasury.” St. John Chrysostom says: “In the psalms we are taught very many useful things. David speaks to you both of the present and the future, of visible and invisible creation; he teaches you also about resurrection and about Jesus Christ, and about the future life, and about the rest of the righteous and the torments of the sinners; he imparts to you both moral and dogmatic teaching. In short, in the Psalter you will find countless blessings. Have you fallen into temptation? You will find in it the best consolation. Have you fallen into sin? You will find countless remedies. Have you fallen into poverty or misfortune? You will see there many harbors. If you are righteous, you will acquire the most reliable support; if you are a sinner, you will find the most effective consolation. If you are elated by your good deeds, you will there learn humility. If your sins cast you into despair, you will find great encouragement there. If you have upon your head a royal crown, or are distinguished by high wisdom, the psalms will teach you to be modest. If you are rich and renowned, the psalmist will convince you that there is nothing great on earth. If you are stricken by sorrow, you will hear consolation. Do you see that the righteous suffer misfortunes equally with sinners, you will receive an explanation of this. Do you see that some unworthy here enjoy happiness, you will learn not to envy them. Each word there contains within itself an endless sea of thoughts.” St. Ambrose of Milan, in his commentary on the first psalm, says: “Throughout all Scripture breathes the grace of God, but in the sweet song of the psalms it breathes predominantly. History instructs, the law teaches, the prophets foretell and predict, moral teaching persuades, while the book of psalms persuades in all this and is the most complete medical pharmacy of human salvation.”

The songs of the Psalter, as lyrical works in which the authors acquaint us with the feelings they experience, do not always distinguish themselves by strict logical sequence in exposition and consistency of tone, character of the expressed thoughts; often in the course of thoughts there is no connection observed, there are unexpected transitions from one subject to another, and in one and the same psalm a sorrowful tone of exposition passes over into a joyful one, and vice versa (Psalms 2, 4, 8–9, 21, and many others). This lack of connection in the course of thoughts is understandable: the voice of living, direct responsiveness of feeling and the logical demands of rational connectedness and precision in the formulation of thoughts cannot always be in agreement. Furthermore, the psalms, being written by many persons, distinguish themselves by great diversity in the external methods of construction and expression of thoughts, in word and in the character of depicting similar subjects (general indications were given above).

All the foregoing speaks to the fact that dividing the psalms into definite groups, whichever criterion we might accept into consideration—whether the subject matter of the psalms or the external features of their construction—is impossible, as we would obtain almost as many parts as there are psalms. In view of this, when dividing the psalms, attention is paid to the “relatively predominant” character of their content, and in this case the psalms are divided into 1) laudatory and thanksgiving ones, 2) prayerful ones, and 3) didactic ones. In consideration of the importance of content, there are also singled out as a separate fourth group the messianic psalms.

The first group includes those psalms in which reverence before God is expressed as Creator and Providence of the universe, gratitude for the various gifts of His bestowed upon the Hebrew people or the psalmist. Here are considered to belong all psalms with the heading “song,” “alleluia,” “praise,” and “in confession.” Such psalms number 55: 8, 17, 20, 29, 32, 33, 45–47, 64–67, 74, 75, 80, 86, 91, 92, 94–99, 102–107, 110, 112–117, 121, 123, 125, 128, 133–135, 137, 143–150.

“Prayerful” psalms are those in which the writers turn to God with some request, or with cries for help and protection, or with expression of deep sorrow about the corruption of the world, or with indignation at the wicked and prayer for their punishment, and so on. An external distinguishing feature is prayerful addresses: O Lord, have mercy, O Lord, save, hearken, hear, and others. To these belong: 3–7, 9, 12, 15, 16, 21, 24, 27, 30, 34, 37–40, 43, 50, 53–55, 58–60, 63, 68–70, 73, 76, 78, 79, 82–85, 87, 89, 93, 101, 108, 119, 122, 129, 139–142. Psalms 6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 119, 142, because of the feelings of penitent contrition over sins expressed in them, are called “penitential.”

“Didactic” psalms are those whose predominant content consists of reflections concerning the circumstances of the author’s personal life or the life of the people. All psalms with the heading “teaching” belong to them. The didactic psalms are as follows: 1, 2, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 31, 35, 36, 41, 42, 48, 49, 51, 52, 57, 61, 67, 81, 100, 111, 118, 120, 124, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 136, 138.

“Messianic” psalms are those containing prophecy concerning the times of the New Testament and, especially, about Jesus Christ. These psalms do not form a separate group: messianic features are found in psalms of all groups. The following 23 psalms are considered messianic: 2, 8, 15, 19, 21, 39, 40, 44, 46, 50, 67, 68, 71, 77, 88, 94, 96, 101, 117, 118, 129, 131, 142. Messianic psalms by the method of depicting future times are divided into two categories—prophetic and typological. When the future times are depicted by the psalmist in a simple exposition of revelation given to the writer at a known historical event, such psalms are called prophetic; when the events of the future are set forth by the writer in the features of historical facts already accomplished, they are called typological. For example, the 109th psalm depicts the future universal dominion of the Son of God; the occasion for such a depiction was the revelation communicated to David after his brilliant victories obtained, this is a prophetic psalm; when, however, in the actual historical fact itself, as for example, in the glorification of God even by nursing babes at the passage of the Hebrews through the Red Sea (Ps 8), there is an exact reproduction of a future event (such a same glorification of Jesus Christ by small children at His entrance into Jerusalem), such psalms are called typological.

Besides extensive use in worship, the Psalter enjoyed wide dissemination in public and domestic life among the ancient Hebrews, so also among Christians of the first centuries and at the present time. Thus, among the Hebrews, at ordinary feasts they sang the 22nd psalm, at the entrance of pilgrims into the porch of the Jerusalem Temple—the 29th, at approach to Mount Zion—the 150th, during the lighting of lamps and the offering of incense by the priests—the 69th. There is reason to think that the 8th psalm (see the heading) was sung at the completion of the gathering of grapes, and the 44th—at wedding feasts.

In Christian society of the first centuries, when each strove toward building a life in the spirit of the instructions of the church and Christian teaching, the Psalter took the place of popular song. According to the testimony of Jerome: “among us Christians there is complete simplicity, and silence is broken only by the singing of psalms. Go wherever you will: the plowman going behind the plow sings the Alleluia; the reaper, covered with sweat, entertains himself with psalms; and the vintner, cutting grape vines with a curved knife, sings something from David. These are the favorite songs of the people. The psalm is the exclamation of shepherds; the psalm is the refrain of the farmer” (Letters to Marcella). St. Athanasius says: “in the marketplaces are heard exclamations from the psalms.” In Russian society, the Psalter was the handbook of every literate person, according to it, instruction in reading was conducted in schools, and it even served as an object of superstitious regard: by the place where the Psalter opened, people sought to guess the outcome of a contemplated deed or to find instructions how to act in difficulties encountered. Concerning St. Tikhon of Zadonsk, his cell attendant Chebotarev writes: “In the very middle of the night he would go out into the front cell, and sang quietly and piously the holy psalms. It was remarkable that when he was in gloomy thoughts, he would sing the psalm: “It is good for me that You have afflicted me.” When he was in cheerful thoughts, he would sing: “Praise the Lord from the heavens” and other consoling psalms, and always with pitying tears. He never went or traveled anywhere without the Psalter, but always carried it with him in his bosom, because it was small, and finally he knew it all by heart. On the road, wherever he traveled, he always read the Psalter, and sometimes sang it aloud, and would explain to me certain passages or would expound some text” (A Guide to Reading Holy Scripture by Fr. Solovyev, pages 190–191). In our time, too, one can meet many who know the Psalter by heart, and among pious people it continues to be read more than all other sacred books. To this day, the ancient custom has been preserved of reading the Psalter over the deceased, either for a period of forty days, or on the 6th, 9th, and 40th days after death.

We cited above the judgments of the Church fathers concerning the book of the Psalter, pointing out the multiplicity of its subject matter and its soothing and elevating effect on the human soul. This is the chief reason for the widespread use of the Psalter. Besides the mentioned features, the following peculiarities of the Psalter contribute to its wide use: sincerity and simplicity of expression, artistry of the form of expressing thoughts, the commonality of its content, and the loftiness of its subjects. The writers of the psalms set forth only what they themselves felt and experienced, and they set it forth in an easily comprehensible form, and therefore the reader could not help but understand the content of the songs; sincerity in the exposition of feelings compels the reader to sympathize with the writer and to experience what is read; the artistry of the form of exposition, when the thoughts and feelings of a human being are clothed in vivid and strong images, maintains attention to the book. Moreover, the Psalter could have become the common possession only if from its content had been excluded those features of temporary dependence on the circumstances of its origin and purely personal views of its authors which are understood only by the contemporaries of the psalms or by their authors, but not by the reader of another time and of other conditions of life. This very temporal dependence, these accidental features, are absent in the Psalter, that is, its content in the vast majority of psalms is distinguished by a universal human character and, consequently, by universal accessibility. The fact, too, that the main subject of the content of the Psalter is the appeal to God, removes the reader from the interests of everyday, earthly life and elevates his spirit, satisfying his highest aspirations. In this lies the explanation for why pious people and all the unfortunate and destitute find consolation and solace in the Psalter.