Chapter XXVII. That Our Warfare is Against Ourselves and Our Inward Passions

[P] [1] ‘But how for a man in relation to himself? Must he be disposed as an enemy towards an enemy, or what do we say in this case?

‘O Athenian stranger, Attic I should not like to call you, since you seem to me worthy rather to be called after the name of the goddess, because you have made the argument clearer by rightly bringing it back to its first principle, so that you will more easily recognize that we were quite right just now in saying that all men are enemies to all, both in public and in private, and every one an enemy to himself.

‘What do you mean, my good sir?

‘In this last case also, my friend, a man’s conquest over himself is the first and noblest of all victories, but to be defeated by himself is at once the basest and worst defeat of all. For this is a sign that there is a war against ourselves going on in every one of us.’

And after other passages he adds to this and says: [2]

‘Must we not then reckon each of ourselves as one?

‘Yes.

‘But as possessing in himself two counsellors, antagonistic and foolish, which we call pleasure and pain?

‘That is true.

‘And in addition to both these certain opinions of things future, which in common are called expectation, but severally the expectation of pain is called fear, and the expectation of the contrary is confidence. And further with all these there is a calculation, which of them is better or worse, and when this calculation has become a common decree of a State it is called law.’

And presently he says: [3]

‘But this we know, that these affections in us are like cords and strings which pull us inwardly, and being opposite to each other draw us different ways towards opposite actions; and herein lies the distinction between virtue and vice. For reason affirms that there is one of these drawings to which every man ought always to yield, and never let it go, but pull against the other cords; and that this one is the golden and sacred guidance of reason, called the public law of the State; and that others are hard and of iron, but this one soft, as being of gold (and of one form), while the others are like all kinds of forms. We ought therefore always to take part with the best guidance, that of the law. For inasmuch as reason is beautiful and gentle and not violent, its guidance needs assistants, in order that in us the golden kind of motive may prevail over the other kinds.

‘And so in this way the fable about virtue, speaking of us as being puppets, would be maintained, and the meaning of the expression about a man being “better or worse than himself” would in a certain way be made clearer; and that in regard to a State or an individual, the latter having found in his own case a true principle with regard to this drawing by cords should live in obedience to it, and a State, having learned the principle either from some god or from this very individual thus informed, should establish it as a law for dealing both with herself and with all other states. Thus vice and virtue would be more clearly distinguished for us.’

Among us also the word of God teaches the like doctrines, saying: ‘I delight in the law of God after the inward man, but I see another law in my members warring against the law of my mind.’ [4] And again: ‘Their thoughts one with another accusing or else excusing them.’ [5] And other passages which are similar to these.