Chapter 1

Theophylact of Ohrid, Exposition of the Epistle of St Paul to the Romans — Chapter One

¹ Argument of the Epistle to the Romans. The continual reading of the divine Scriptures leads to the knowledge of them; for he who said, Seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you, is no liar. Let us therefore learn the mysteries of the Epistles of the blessed Paul also, by reading them continually and with care; for he surpassed all the rest in the word of teaching. And with reason; for since he labored more than all, he drew to himself also a more abundant grace of the Spirit. And this is plain not only from the Epistles, but also from the Acts. For he was thought to be Hermes by the unbelievers, because he took the lead in speaking. Now there lies before us First to the Romans, not because this was the first written; for before it are the two to the Corinthians, and before these again the one to the Thessalonians, in which, praising them, he hints at the ministration sent to Jerusalem; but the one to the Galatians also is earlier than this to the Romans. Of the other Epistles, however, this to the Romans, I say, is the earlier. How then is it ranked first? Because with Scripture such an order is not necessary. For indeed the twelve prophets too, not being successive to one another in their times, but standing far apart from one another, are nevertheless placed successively in the order of the books. And Paul writes to the Romans, as one who has a debt to be a minister of Christ, and as to those who preside over the world. For he who benefits the head surely benefits the body well.

² Chapter One. Paul. Neither Moses, nor many of those after him, nor even the evangelists, set their names before their writings. But this blessed man, everywhere in the Epistles, sets his own name before them; because those wrote to such as were present, whereas he sent his letters from afar, and with reason fulfilled the law of the epistolary character. In the one to the Hebrews, however, he does not do this. For since they were ill-disposed toward him, lest, hearing the name at once, they should start away, he hides it in the preamble. And for what cause was he called Paul instead of Saul? That he might not in this respect be inferior to the chief of the apostles, who was surnamed Cephas, which is interpreted Peter, and to the sons of Zebedee, who were named Boanerges, that is, sons of thunder.

³ A servant. There are many modes of servitude. That from creation, according to which, All things are your servants; that from faith, according to which it is said, That you obeyed unto that form of teaching unto which you were delivered; that from manner of life, according to which Moses also was a servant of God. According to all these modes, then, Paul is a servant.

⁴ Of Jesus Christ. He puts forward the names of the dispensation, running up from the things below to the things above. For indeed after the incarnation he is Jesus and Christ. For he was anointed, not with oil at all, but with the Holy Spirit, which is altogether more lordly than oil. And that there is an anointing even apart from oil, in the Spirit alone, hear: Touch not my anointed ones; for the word is about those before the law, when there was not even a name for the anointing with oil.

⁵ Called. A word of humility; for it shows that he did not himself find by seeking, but came when he was called.

⁶ An apostle. This he set down by way of distinction from the other called ones. For all the faithful indeed are called; but those only as far as to believe, whereas I, he says, was also entrusted with the apostleship, which Christ too had been entrusted with, being sent forth from the Fa—[1]

⁷ Separated unto the Gospel of God. That is, allotted unto the ministry of the Gospel. And in another sense too, the word Separated [stands] instead of, Foreordained unto this; as God also says to Jeremiah, Before you came forth out of the womb, I sanctified you. And Paul himself elsewhere says, When it pleased God, who separated me from my mother’s womb. And not in vain does he say that I am called, and that I am Separated unto the Gospel. But since his discourse was toward boasters, he makes himself worthy of credit, as being from God. And it is called Gospel, not only on account of the good things that have come to pass, but also on account of those to come. And he comforts the hearer straightway through the name. For it contains nothing gloomy, such as the things of the prophets, but treasures of countless good things. And this Gospel is God’s—that is, the Father’s—both as bestowed by him, and as making him known. For even if it was known in the Old [Testament], yet [it was] to the Jews only; and not even to these as Father; but afterward, through the Gospel, it was revealed to the whole world, together with the Son.

⁸ Which he promised beforehand through his prophets. Since they slandered the preaching as new, he shows it to be older even than the Greeks, and prefigured in the prophets; and in the very words, the name of the Gospel is found in David, as the saying, The Lord shall give a word to those who proclaim good tidings, with great power; and in Isaiah, How beautiful are the feet of those who proclaim good tidings of peace.

⁹ In holy Scriptures. For the prophets did not only speak, but also wrote, and figured [these things] forth by deeds; as Abraham through Isaac, and Moses through the serpent, and through the stretching out of his hands, and through the slaying of the lamb. For indeed, whenever God is about to bring some great things to pass, he proclaims them beforehand many years in advance. If, then, he also says, Many prophets desired to see the things which you behold, and saw them not, The flesh itself, he means, they saw not, and the signs themselves before their eyes.

¹⁰ Concerning his Son, who was made of the seed of David according to the flesh. Here he plainly declares the two generations: in saying, Concerning his Son, that is, of God, the generation above; and in adding, Of the seed of David, the one below; and by adding also, According to the flesh, he showed that there is a generation of the same one according to the Spirit. The Gospel, then, is not concerning a mere man; for it is concerning the Son of God; but neither concerning a mere God; for it is concerning him who was made of the seed of David according to the flesh—the same being both, both Son of God and son of David. And let Nestorius henceforth be ashamed. And this one too makes mention of his generation according to the flesh, as do the three Evangelists, that from this he might lead the hearers by the hand to the generation above. For indeed the Lord himself was first seen as man, and then known as God.

¹¹ Who was declared the Son of God with power, according to the Spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord. He said above that the Gospel is concerning his Son; now, then, he establishes how he was known to be Son of God, and says: who was declared, that is, marked out, demonstrated, confirmed, adjudged. For a marking-out is a judgment, and a vote, and a verdict. For all marked him out and voted him to be Son of God. Whence? With power, that is, from the power of the signs which he wrought. But also according to the Spirit of holiness, that is, from the Spirit, through whom he sanctified those who believed; for to bestow such things belongs to God. But also by the resurrection from the dead; for he was the first, and alone raised himself. And from the resurrection, then, he was declared and shown forth to be Son of God; for this too is a great thing, and he himself says, When you have lifted me up from the earth, then you shall know that I am he.

¹² Through whom we received grace and apostleship unto obedience of faith. Behold his thankfulness. Nothing, he says, is ours, but we received all things through the Son. And indeed it was through the Spirit that they received the apostleship and the grace. For he, he says, shall guide you; and the Spirit says, Separate me Paul and Barnabas; and, Through the Spirit is given the word of wisdom. And what of this? The things of the Spirit are the Son’s, and the reverse. Grace, he says, we received, and apostleship, that is, We did not ourselves achieve the becoming apostles, but this is from the grace above. But the persuading also is of grace; for the going about and preaching belongs to the apostles, but the persuading of the hearers belongs wholly to God. Unto obedience of faith. Not unto word-battles and questionings, or arguments, were we sent, he says, but unto obedience of faith; that, he says, those who are taught may obey, believing without gainsaying.

¹³ Among all the nations, for the sake of his name. And among all the nations we received grace—not I alone, but the rest of the apostles too. For Paul did not go about to all the nations; unless one should say that, even if not while living, yet at least after his death, he goes about to all the nations through the Epistles. [This was] that they who hear might believe concerning the name of Christ, not concerning his essence. For it was the name of Christ that also wrought the signs. And this has need of faith; for neither is even this comprehensible by reasoning. And mark the gift of the Gospel, given not to one nation, as the Old [Testament], but to all.

¹⁴ Among whom are you also the called of Jesus Christ. Here he takes down their haughtiness. For you who seem to rule have no more than the other nations; but as to the others, so also to you, we preach; do not, then, vaunt yourselves. And in another sense too: For you also are called, having been taken beforehand by grace, not having come forward of yourselves.

¹⁵ To all that are in Rome, beloved of God, called saints. Not to all in Rome simply, but to the beloved of God. Whence is it plain that they are beloved? From the sanctification; and he calls all the faithful saints. Again, he added Called, putting them in remembrance of the benefaction, and showing that, even if you were of consuls and prefects, yet God [set] you in the same calling as the common sort also, loving you alike. Since, then, you both were loved, and were called, and were counted worthy of the like things with the meaner sort, be not lifted up.

¹⁶ Grace to you and peace. The Lord also commanded the apostles to speak this word first, the word of peace, on entering into the houses. For no small war did he dissolve, which sin had brought forth for us against God; and this peace is not from our own labors, but from the divine grace; first, then, the grace, and then the peace. These two good things, then, he prays may remain continual and unmoved, so that, when we sin again, another war be not rekindled.

¹⁷ From God our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ. Oh, how much grace prevailed, which is from the divine love! For we, the enemies and dishonored, gained God as Father. From God the Father, then, and our Lord Jesus Christ, may the grace and the peace be sure unto you; from those who both gave these things, and are able to keep them.

¹⁸ First, I give thanks to my God through Jesus Christ for you all, that your faith is proclaimed in the whole world. A preamble befitting the soul of Paul, through which we too are taught to give thanks; and not for our own good things only, but also for those of our neighbors; for this is love. And he gives thanks, not over certain earthly and perishing things, but because the Romans believed. And in saying, To my God, he showed the disposition which he has, making the common God his own, as the prophets also did. And God himself does this, naming himself the God of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, that he might show forth his love toward them. And he says that he gives thanks through Jesus Christ; for he is also our mediator of the thanksgiving toward the Father, not only having taught us to give thanks, but also bringing our thanksgiving to the Father. And for what cause does he give thanks? Because the faith of the Romans is proclaimed in the whole world. He bears them two witnesses: both that they believed, and that [they did so] with such boldness that their faith is proclaimed in the whole world; and that through them all are profited, being kindled into zeal and imitation of the imperial city. And although Peter had preached in Rome, yet, accounting his things his own, he gives thanks for the faith of Peter’s disciples; so free was he from envy.

¹⁹ For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit in the Gospel of his Son, that without ceasing I make mention of you always in my prayers. Since he had not yet seen them, but was about to say, I ever remember you, he calls as witness him who knows the hearts. And behold his tender affection, if indeed he always remembered men who had not even been seen by him. And where? In his prayers, and that without ceasing. And I serve God, that is, I am his servant; in my spirit, that is, not a fleshly service, but a spiritual one. For the pagan service is both fleshly and erring; and the Jewish, unerring indeed, but this too bodily; whereas the service according to Christ is both true and spiritual; which the Lord also says to the Samaritan woman, that The true worshippers shall worship in spirit and in truth. And since there are many modes of service (for one serves and is servant to God by ordering his own affairs alone; another by caring for strangers, and presiding over widows, as in the case of Stephen; another in the ministry of the word), Paul says this, that I serve him in the Gospel of the Son. And yet he said above that the Gospel is the Father’s; but [there is] nothing new; for the things of the Father are the Son’s, and the things of the Son are the Father’s. And he says this, showing that such care on their behalf is necessary for him. For he who is entrusted with the service of the Gospel is under necessity to care for all who receive the word.

²⁰ Making request, if by any means now at length I might have a prosperous journey by the will of God to come unto you. Now he adds also on what account he makes mention of them: For the sake of Coming, he says, unto you. And see how he both longed for them, and hastened to see them; yet not contrary to what seemed good to God. But we either love no one, or, whenever we do love at some time, we do this contrary to what seems good to God. But Paul made his continual praying that he might see them from a vehement love; while his yielding to the nod of God he showed from much reverence. And let us too, when we fail in our asking, not be vexed. For we are not better than Paul, who also besought the Lord three times concerning the thorn, and did not obtain; for this was the thing expedient.

²¹ For I long to see you, that I may impart unto you some spiritual gift. Others are sent on long journeys for the sake of other things, but I, he says, that I may impart something to you. And he says this in modesty; for he did not say, That I may teach, but, That I may impart what I received. And this is a small and measured thing. For everything is a gift which teachers display unto the profit of their hearers. For even if it seems an achievement, yet our achievements too are gifts, because they have need of the inclination from above.

²² That you may be established; that is, that I may be comforted together with you, through the mutual faith both of you and me. Secretly he showed that they had need of much setting right. But since this too was very burdensome (for they would have said, What do you say? Are we shaken? Are we carried about? And have we need of you to be established?), he adds: That is, that I may be comforted together with you. And what he says is of this sort: You have endured many afflictions; I have desired, then, to see you, that I may give some comfort; or rather, that I myself may also receive comfort; for the gain is common. For just as those who were then faithful, being in captivity, had need of the gathering together with one another, and were greatly consoled. What then? Did Paul too have need of the alliance from them? Away with it—he, the pillar of the Church! But lest he make his discourse vehement, and strike them, as we said, for this cause he said that he himself also had need of the comfort from them. But if anyone here says that the comfort is the gladness over the increase of the faith of the Romans, and that Paul had need of this, he would say well; which is plain also from his saying, through the mutual faith both of you and me; so that the meaning is of this sort: And I indeed, seeing your faith, shall be comforted and gladdened; and you, by the faith in me, shall be established, being consoled in the things wherein perhaps, through faint-heartedness, you are shaken. But he does not say these things openly, but manages his discourse, as has been said.

²³ But I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that often I purposed to come unto you, and was hindered hitherto. Since above he said, I pray to come unto you, and it was likely that some would suspect, You pray and desire to comfort and to be comforted—what is it that hinders you from coming?—he added that I was hindered from coming by God. And see how he does not busy himself about why he was hindered, but yields to the Master’s commands, teaching us too not to busy ourselves about the things which God does. He shows, then, to the Romans that it was not through sloth, or contempt, that he did not come. For I am so encompassed with longing for you that not even when hindered did I desist, but again and again I attempted to come, on account of my vehement love toward you.

²⁴ That I might have some fruit among you also, even as among the rest of the nations. Since the city was renowned, and all flocked to it, on account of the wonders in it and its glory, lest one suppose that Paul desired the sight of them for the same cause, he says: For this reason I desired to come, that I might have some fruit. And he also resolves the other thought; for perhaps one might have said, For this reason you were hindered, because you wished not to come according to God. He says, then, that I wished to have fruit. And he did not say, That I might catechize, that I might teach; but, in modesty, That I might have some fruit; just as also above, That I might impart a gift. And, restraining them also, he says, Even as among the rest of the nations. For do not, because you reign, suppose yourselves to be better than the rest of the nations; for you stand in equal rank.

²⁵ I am debtor both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish; so, as much as in me is, I am ready to preach the Gospel to you also that are at Rome. And this too is of modesty. For I, he says, bestow nothing, but fulfill a Master’s injunction, and you ought to give thanks to God; for he is the benefactor, while I am a debtor, and have an unavoidable obligation to preach; which he said also to the Corinthians, Woe is me, if I preach not the Gospel. I am ready, then, to preach to you, even if dangers are foreseen; so am I disposed in my zeal on behalf of Christ.

²⁶ For I am not ashamed of the Gospel of Christ; for it is the power of God unto salvation to every one that believes. Since the Romans were exceedingly attached to the glory of the world, and he was about to preach Jesus, who endured all the things of dishonor, and it was likely that they would be ashamed of such a seeming Saviour; for this reason he says, I am not ashamed; teaching them for the present not to be ashamed, since indeed he himself not only was not ashamed, but even gloried and boasted in the crucified one. And at the same time, since they vaunted themselves on wisdom, I, he says, am coming to preach a cross, and am not ashamed on this account; For it is the power of God unto salvation. There is also a power unto chastisement—God showed his power to the Egyptians, chastising them. There is also a power unto destruction, as, Fear him who is able to destroy in Gehenna. That, then, which I, Paul, preach, contains not chastisement and destruction, but salvation. And to whom? To every one that believes. For the Gospel is not simply unto salvation to all, but to those who receive it.

²⁷ To the Jew first, and also to the Greek. The word First here is an honor of rank, not an abounding of grace; for the Jew has no more in receiving a greater righteousness, but is honored in receiving it first; it is, then, an honor of word only.

²⁸ For the righteousness of God is revealed in it from faith unto faith; as it is written, The just shall live by faith. Having said that the Gospel is unto salvation, he tells also how this is, namely, that the righteousness of God saves us; for it is not ours. For what righteousness had we, wrapped up in works and corrupted? But he himself justified us, not from works, but from faith, which ought to advance unto faith, more and greater. For it does not suffice to have believed at first, but from the introductory faith we must ascend to the more perfect faith, the unshaken and sure foundation; according to which the apostles also said to the Lord, Add unto us faith. And he confirms what he says—I mean, that we were justified from faith—from the saying of Habakkuk: For the just, he says, shall live by faith. For since that which God bestowed on our behalf surpasses human reasonings, with reason we have need of faith; so that if we begin to busy ourselves about it, we have lost the whole.

²⁹ For the wrath of God is revealed against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness. Having begun from the kindlier things, and having said that the righteousness of God is revealed in the Gospel, he now tells also the things able to terrify; for he knows that the greater number are drawn to virtue by fear. So God too, after the kingdom, speaks concerning Gehenna. And the prophets set down the good things, then the evil; because those are of the foregoing purpose of God, but these of our own sloth. And consider the sequence of the discourse: The Lord came, he says, bringing you righteousness and remission; if you receive it not, then the wrath of God is revealed from heaven—namely, at the second coming. For even now we have a taste of his wrath, but unto correction; whereas then, unto chastisement only. And now we seem for the most part to be wronged by men; but then, the chastisement from God will be manifest. Against all ungodliness. The true service and piety is one; but ungodliness is manifold; therefore he said, All ungodliness, as there being many ways of it. And unrighteousness of men. Ungodliness is one thing, and unrighteousness another; for the one is against God, but unrighteousness against men; and the one is a sin of the contemplative part, the other of the practical. And many also are the ways of this; for one wrongs his neighbor both in goods, and in wife, and in glory. And some say that he has set down unrighteousness also concerning doctrines. And what is, who hold the truth in unrighteousness? Hear: The truth, that is, the knowledge concerning God, was implanted in men from the beginning. This truth and knowledge the Greeks held in unrighteousness—that is, they wronged it, so far as in them lay, attaching the glory of God to idols. Just as one who has received money to spend on the glory of the king, if he spend it on robbers and harlots, would be said to have wronged the glory of the king. So also the Greeks held it in unrighteousness—that is, they unjustly covered over and darkened the glory of God, and the knowledge, not using it unto that which befitted it.

³⁰ Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God showed it unto them. For the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world, being understood by the things that are made, are clearly seen, both his eternal power and divinity; so that they are without excuse; because, knowing God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful. He said above that the Greeks wronged the knowledge of God, using it ill. Whence, then, is it plain that they had knowledge? He now says, Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them. Then he establishes this also, saying that, From the good order of the creatures the Creator is proclaimed; as David also says, The heavens declare the glory of God. And what that which may be known of God is, you may learn thus: Of God, one part is unknowable, such as his essence; and another knowable, such as all the things about the essence—that is, the goodness, the wisdom, the power, the divinity, that is, the majesty; which Paul also calls his invisible things, understood indeed by the things that are made. To the Greeks, then, he showed all that may be known of him, that is, all the things about his essence, which to the senses of the eyes are invisible, but comprehensible to the mind, through the good order in the things that are made. But some say that the invisible things are the angels; not happily, I think. And one of the Fathers said that the eternal power is the Son, and the divinity the Spirit.

³¹ So that they are without excuse. This came to pass by way of result. For God did not make these things for this end, that those might be without excuse, but by way of result this came about. Give heed, then, to this peculiarity of Scripture, and you will not stumble; for many such things are said everywhere, which must be loosed thus, as being assigned a cause from the result; as David says, That I have done evil before you, that you might be justified in your sayings and overcome. And it appears absurd, but it is not. For he says that, Having been benefited by you, Lord, beyond all hope, I sinned against you, and from this it comes about that you, pleading your case against me, prevail. By way of result, then, God is justified, we being ungrateful for the things given by him, and having nothing to plead in defense. And you Greeks too became without excuse, because, knowing God through the creation, you glorified him not worthily, nor were thankful, as to a Creator and Maker; but attached his honor to idols.

³² But they became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened. Professing to be wise, they became fools. He sets down the cause through which they fell into such folly. For they committed the whole, he says, to their reasonings; and wishing to comprehend in a figure him who is figureless, and in a body him who is bodiless, they were proved vain, their reasonings being unable to reach unto the end. And he calls their heart senseless, because of their unwillingness to comprehend the whole by faith. And whence were they led astray into turning the whole over to their reasonings? From supposing themselves to be wise; wherefore also they became fools. For what is more senseless than to worship stones and wood?

³³ And they changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, and of fourfooted beasts, and of creeping things. He who changes what he has, changes it for another thing. They too, then, had the knowledge, but betrayed it, and wished to have some other thing beside what they had, and fell out of what they had as well. And they attached the glory of the incorruptible God, not even to a man, but to an image of corruptible man, and to what is worse than this, and were carried down to creeping things, and another to the images of these; so brilliantly did they go mad. For the knowledge which they ought to have had concerning him who incomparably surpasses all, this they attached to that which is incomparably meaner than all. And the glory of God is to be known as Maker, as provider, and the other things befitting him. And who were these that sinned? The most philosophic, the Egyptians; for these tended the images of creeping things.

³⁴ Wherefore God also gave them up, in the lusts of their hearts, unto uncleanness, to dishonor their own bodies among themselves; who changed the truth of God into a lie, and worshipped and served the creature beside the Creator, who is blessed unto the ages. Amen. The word Gave up [stands] instead of, He let alone, he released; just as a physician helping the sick man, then seeing him disorderly about his regimen, and disobedient to him, gives him up to be the more sick—that is, releases him and lets him alone, so that, using his own will, he is not recovered from the disease. But some understood God gave up thus, instead of, the insolence and drunken outrage against God [gave them up]; just as we say that money ruined such a one; and yet it was not the money that ruined him, but the misuse of it; and, The kingdom destroyed Saul, or Solomon, instead of, The misuse of the kingdom. They were given up, then, through their own wickedness, unto uncleanness, so that they had no need of others to outrage them, but they outraged themselves; for such are the unclean passions. Whence came it that they were given over unto uncleanness? From the insolence against God. For he who is unwilling to know God is forthwith corrupted also in his life; as David also says, The fool said, There is no God; then, They are corrupt, and become abominable in their doings. They changed, then, the things truly belonging to God, and attached them to the false gods. The word They worshipped [stands] instead of, they honored; and And served, instead of, and they offered the servitude through works. For this is the service—the honor through action. And he did not say it simply, but Beside the Creator, heightening the charge from the comparison. But he, he says, is blessed unto the ages, that is, he was nothing harmed by being outraged by them; but is blessed unto the ages, surely and securely; for this is the Amen.

³⁵ For this cause God gave them up unto passions of dishonor. For even their women changed the natural use into that which is against nature. And likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another, men with men working unseemliness, and receiving in themselves that recompense of their error which was meet. Again he names the abandonment of God a giving-up, come to pass for this cause, because they served the creature. As, then, in the doctrines concerning God, having left the guidance from the creation, they were corrupted, so also in their life they became abominable, leaving the pleasure according to nature (which is both easier and more pleasant), and slipping away unto that against nature (which is both harder and more unpleasant). For to change means this, that they left what they had, and chose other things. He sets forth, then, nature also, which they transgressed, as a great accuser of both sexes. For having spoken concealedly of the women something shameful, and not even fit to be uttered, he says also of the men, that They burned one toward another, declaring their frenzy and madness. And he did not say, Working desire, but Unseemliness, showing that they put nature to shame. And since he said that In their lust they burned, lest you suppose that the disease was of desire only, They themselves, he says, wrought it—that is, they made diligence about the uncleanness, setting it up as a work, and receiving the wage of the apostasy from God, and of the error of idols, in the very same unseemliness, and having their chastisement in the very pleasure itself, as being against nature and full of uncleanness. And Paul says this, as one not yet able to persuade them that there is a Gehenna. For believe, he says, that the very unclean deed is a chastisement to them, if indeed you disbelieve the words concerning Gehenna.

³⁶ And even as they did not approve to have God in their knowledge, God gave them up unto a reprobate mind, to do the things that are not fitting. Behold, a third time he made mention of the same thought, and used the same word, saying Gave up. And everywhere he says that the cause of the abandonment of God is the ungodliness of men, as indeed also now. Even as they did not approve to have God in knowledge, he gave them up unto the passions. The insolence against God, he says, is not of ignorance, but of study. For he did not say, Even as they knew not God, but Even as they did not approve, that is, they judged not to have God in knowledge, and, having him, chose ungodliness. The faults, then, are not of the flesh, as certain of the heretics say, but of the corrupted judgment. Those, then, first disapproved of the knowing of God, and then God let them be carried down unto a reprobate mind. For the turning away of God, and the abandonment, is named a giving-up in Scripture. And certain of the saints used a graceful example, through which the saying God gave them up is explained. Just as, they say, if one shut his eyes, unwilling to see the sun, and then fall into a pit, we say, The sun, not being seen, cast such a one into the pit; not that the sun, being angered, cast the man into the pit, but because it did not lighten his eyes (and the not lightening, whence? From him who shut his eyes); so also God gave them up unto passions of dishonor—how? By not being recognized by men. And the not being recognized, whence? From those who did not approve, nor wish to recognize him.

³⁷ Being filled with all unrighteousness. Behold, all the marks of intensity. For he says they were filled with all unrighteousness, having reached the very last measure of all wickedness. Then he tells also the kinds of unrighteousness.

³⁸ Fornication. Simply all uncleanness he comprehended under the name of fornication.

³⁹ Wickedness. The plotting against one’s neighbor.

⁴⁰ Covetousness. The desire of goods.

⁴¹ Malice. The bearing of grudges.

⁴² Full of envy, murder. Always murder comes from envy. For Abel too, being envied, was slain; and Joseph—or rather, it was only intended against him.

⁴³ Of strife, of deceit. From envy come both strife and deceit, unto the harm of him who is envied.

⁴⁴ Of malignity. Of the wickedness hidden in the depth, and feigning kindness.

⁴⁵ Whisperers. Those who slander secretly.

⁴⁶ Backbiters. Those who do so openly.

⁴⁷ Haters of God. Those who hate God, or also are hated by God.

⁴⁸ Insolent, proud, boasters. He ascended to the citadel of evils, pride. For even one who does a good thing destroys it by being lifted up; how much more when he also does evil things? For he cannot repent. Moreover, know that pride is contempt of God, but boastfulness, of men; from which is begotten insolence. For he who despises men insults and tramples on all; whence also in order boastfulness is by nature prior to insolence; even if, then, insolence appears to us prior, it is because its mother is boastfulness.

⁴⁹ Inventors of evil things. For they were not content with the former evils; and this is not of sudden seizure, but of study and diligence.

⁵⁰ Disobedient to parents. Fighting, he says, against nature itself.

⁵¹ Without understanding. With reason. For those who are disobedient to parents, of what else would they have understanding?

⁵² Covenant-breakers. That is, Those who abide not by what is agreed upon; which is, faithless.

⁵³ Implacable, without natural affection, unmerciful. The root of all evils is this, the cooling of love. For hence comes the making of no truce with anyone, the loving of no one, the showing of mercy to none; which Christ also said, When iniquity is multiplied, love shall wax cold. And yet nature glues us to one another, as the animals; but they understood not.

⁵⁴ Who, knowing the ordinance of God, that they who do such things are worthy of death, not only do them, but also consent with them that do them. He showed that from the unwillingness to know God they were filled with all wickedness; he now shows that they are not even worthy of pardon. For they have not this to plead, that We were ignorant of the good; for they know the ordinance of God. Willingly, then, they do it, and what is worse than this, they consent with them that do it—that is, they lend their strength to the evil; which must be an incurable disease.