Chapter Eleven

A description of the eagle rising from the sea (1–6). The rule of twelve large wings and two subordinate wings (7–23). Attempts at dominion by the four subordinate wings (24–28). The sovereignty of the three heads of the eagle (29–36). The appearance of the lion and its accusatory speech to the eagle (37–46).

2 Esdras 11:1. And I saw a dream, and behold, an eagle rose from the sea, which had twelve feathered wings and three heads. 1. The prophet sees in a dream an eagle rising from the depths of the sea (de mari). The eagle has 12 wings and three heads. Eight subordinate wings, which play a secondary role, are not yet named. The symbol of the eagle was used in application to a monarchy both in the East among the Assyrians and Persians, and in the West among the Romans. Among the Hebrew prophets it is applied both to an entire monarchy and to individual persons. Ezekiel depicts under the image of an eagle the Babylonian (XVII:3, 12) and Egyptian monarchy (XVII:7, 15); Jeremiah—the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar (XLVIII:40; XLIX:22). In the book of Daniel the first world monarchy, contemplated under the symbol of a lion, is ascribed eagle wings (VII:4). In the Roman Empire the image of the eagle was used as a state emblem on standards and coins. Since the time of Herod the Great it was placed on the Jerusalem temple itself and on Jewish coins. In this symbol of the royal bird the author wished to emphasize, on the one hand, the extraordinary power and might of the Roman Empire, which reigned over almost the entire world, and on the other hand, its predatory inclinations. The eagle comes forth from the sea like the four beasts of Daniel (VII:3). From the same book are taken the principal components of the vision: wings and heads. In Daniel the third beast—the leopard has 4 bird wings and 4 heads (VII:6).

2 Esdras 11:2. And I saw: behold, he spread his wings over the whole earth, and all the winds of heaven blew upon him and the clouds gathered. 2. In Daniel’s vision there likewise, over the great sea from which the four beasts come forth, all four winds of heaven blow (VII:2). Despite the storm, the eagle rises smoothly from the sea and reaches the clouds.

2 Esdras 11:3. And I saw that from his feathers other small feathers came forth, and from those yet smaller and shorter ones. 3. The appearance of small or subordinate wings before Ezra’s eyes is analogous to the emergence among the 10 horns of the fourth beast of Daniel a small horn (VII:8). The designation of the component parts of the vision in the Latin text is not clearly distinguished. The 12 large wings at first bear the name of “feathered wings” (alae pennarum) or simply “wings” (alae). In the epithet adjoined to the word alae, Volkmar sees either poetic ornament or a desire to prevent the possibility of understanding it in the sense of a wing of a military force. In any case, the addition had an unfavorable effect on the subsequent text, which is why often (XII:7, 12–13) instead of wings erroneously there is talk of feathers. The secondary part of the vision in the Latin translation also bears the name of feathers (pennae) or little feathers (pennacula), whereby the difference between the 12 original wings and the 8 newly appeared subordinate wings completely disappears. In the Eastern translations—Syrian, Arabic, and Armenian—the organs growing on the eagle’s body subsequently are named “smaller, fine, and short wings” (alae minutae et exiles et modicae, Syr.). The distinction between them and the 12 large wings in the Latin text is expressed in the designation of them as “contrary feathers” (contrariae pennae), “smaller and short little feathers” (in pennaculis minutis et modicis, XI:3), and “subwings” (subalares, XI:31; XII:19). According to Gutschmid’s hypothesis (241–242), the first of these names hints that they separate from the main feathers and occupy a perpendicular position relative to them. However, it is far more natural to consider it an imprecise translation of the Greek word άντιπτέρυγες or άντίπτερα. The Greek prefix άντι, marking the secondary significance of the subordinate wings, at the same time should have indicated the position occupied by the persons represented under this symbol, in relation to the rulers depicted in the form of 12 large wings. If the large wings are understood in most cases (XI:21) as the legitimate bearers of power who actually occupied the royal throne (πτέρυξ βασιλεύς), then behind the subordinate or small wings are hidden the pretenders to the throne and usurpers who sought to seize power (άντιπτέρυξ άντιβασιλεύς). This view is held by Volkmar (152–153), Hilgenfeld (Judische Apokatyptik, 204–205), and Gunkel (390). Wieseler (271–272) explains this designation in the sense that the small wings are placed opposite the large ones, which occupy, apparently, the right side of the eagle (XI:12). The Greek word άντιπτέρυγες, as well as the Latin designation subalares, in his opinion, indicates the dependent, subordinate position occupied by the small wings in relation to the large ones. But in the vision itself all the difference between them is limited only to the brevity of the reign or the failure of the claims to the throne of the persons depicted in the form of small wings. Therefore, the theories of Gfrorer (I, 88–91), Wieseler (271–281), and Kabish (164), seeing in the 8 small wings the rulers of Palestine from the dynasty of Herod, or the leaders of the last Jewish revolt, do not possess persuasiveness.

2 Esdras 11:4. His heads rested, and the middle head was greater than the other heads, but it also rested with them. 4. After a brief indication of the main characteristics of the eagle (XI:1) the author dwells on them with greater detail (XI:3–4). He distinguishes between large and small wings and heads. Characteristically, the number of subordinate wings is still not named. By this the author wishes to say that he grasped the details of the vision not at once but gradually, as he gazed upon the eagle soaring high in the sky.—Three emperors from the house of the Flavians are represented under the image of the three heads of the eagle, because by their destruction of Jerusalem they completed and headed the lawlessness which Rome committed against the defenseless Judea. Judea was as if swallowed by them. The three heads retain peace (Lat., Syr.), or silence (Eth., Ar., Arm.). Their calm at the sight of the separating from the 12 main wings appendages hints that the pretenders to the throne and usurpers could play a known role only with the tacit consent or due to the inaction of the Flavii. In their silence one can, in particular, see an indication of the withdrawn character of the head of the dynasty—Vespasian. When after Nero’s death the Roman throne became a plaything in the hands of military commanders who lost it with the same speed with which they seized power, Vespasian by no action revealed his ambitious designs. Though according to Flavius’s testimony in 68 AD all saw in him a future emperor, yet he with unusual readiness swore allegiance to a whole series of emperors: Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. Despite the requests of friends, he not only does not prevent Galba from occupying the throne, but even sends Titus to him to render imperial honors. He manifested the same restraint after Galba’s death. Even when the Pannonian legions proclaimed him emperor and received support from Egypt and Syria, he persistently delayed taking the throne (Volkmar, 340). It is also possible that the name of the last emperor from the house of the Flavians stirs in the mind of the author-Semite the thought of silence. In the Hebrew and Aramaic languages the first three letters of Domitian’s name “dom” mean “silence”. At the time people were inclined to give mysterious meaning to the initial letters. Vespasian and Titus, who had already died by the time the book appeared, could be called silent following the example of the surviving Domitian (Gfrorer, 87–68. Wieseler, 269). The middle head is understood as Vespasian, as the founder of the dynasty. The three heads of the eagle, acting in union with one another, exactly reproduce the relations between Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. Wishing to secure the throne for his dynasty, Vespasian at the very beginning declared both his sons Caesars, and soon after made Titus his co-ruler. At public celebrations he usually appeared among his sons. Such a picture was presented, according to Flavius, by the triumphal procession occasioned by Titus’s capture of Jerusalem. On coins pertaining to the reign of Vespasian, all three members of the Flavian house usually appear, the father on the obverse, and the sons on the reverse.

2 Esdras 11:5. And I saw: behold, the eagle flew on his wings and reigned over the earth and over all its inhabitants. 2 Esdras 11:6. And I saw that all the region under heaven was subject to him, and none opposed him, nor any of the creatures that exist on earth. 2 Esdras 11:7. And behold, the eagle took his stand on his talons and spoke with a voice to his feathers, and said: 2 Esdras 11:8. do not all keep watch together; sleep each in your own place, and keep watch in turn, 2 Esdras 11:9. and let the heads be preserved for the last time. 2 Esdras 11:10. I saw that his voice came not from his heads but from the middle of his body. 7–10. Eagles depicted in the book of the prophet Ezekiel (XVII:3, 7 according to the LXX) possess talons. The talons are in Volkmar’s opinion (342) a symbol of the Roman legions, which were distinguished by their predatory character and thirst for blood. On them rests the entire power of the Roman Caesars. The voice proceeding before the reigning of the first wing not from the heads, as one would expect, but from the middle of the eagle, the interpretation of the vision (XII:17–18) assigns to another moment in the history of the Roman Empire. Here it plays a purely auxiliary role, showing that the kings and usurpers who appear in the general picture together and simultaneously, in reality rule or seek to rule one after another. In Gutschmid’s opinion in the eagle’s command that not all wings keep watch together, there is hinted at the change from republican rule in Rome to monarchical. From this time on its world dominion begins. The interpretation of the prophet himself assigns the voice to the time of interregnum after the cessation of the Julian dynasty, when with special clarity appeared the necessity of a monarchical order for ensuring Rome’s further existence.

2 Esdras 11:11. I counted his small feathers; there were eight of them. 11. The reference is to subordinate wings.

2 Esdras 11:12. And behold, from the right side one feather rose and reigned over the whole earth. 2 Esdras 11:13. And when it had reigned, its end came, and it was seen no more; then another feather rose and reigned; and this exercised dominion for a long time. 12–13. A feather is erroneously named in the Latin text for a large wing. The author successively recounts the history of the kings depicted under the image of the 12 large wings. Since the history of Rome could be the subject of his influence only from the moment when Rome laid its iron hand upon Judea, obviously under the large wings are understood, first and foremost, the emperors from the house of Julius and subsequent rulers until Vespasian. Since the second wing, distinguished by unusual longevity, undoubtedly denotes Octavian Augustus, then the first obviously conceals Julius Caesar. Flavius considers him the first Roman emperor (Antiquitates judaicae XVIII, 2, 2; 6, 10). The Sibylline Books hold the same reckoning (V, 10–15), Roman historians—Suetonius (Vitae XII Caesarum), Aurelius Victor, and Julian (cited. Renan. Apocalypse, 407), and Christian writers—Theophil of Antioch (To Autolycus III, 25) and Epiphanius of Cyprus (De pondere et mensuris, 12). Though juridically the Roman Empire began with Augustus, in fact the transition from republican rule to absolute monarchy was accomplished by Caesar. He fell a victim to his own idea. Caesar’s unexpected death, leaving no offspring, was the greatest danger to the nascent order. This event is indicated by the disappearance of the first wing without any trace, so that even its place was not seen.

2 Esdras 11:14. When it had reigned and when its end drew near, that it would disappear like the first, 14. Augustus, like Caesar, left no direct heir after him.

2 Esdras 11:15. and behold, there was heard a voice speaking to it: 2 Esdras 11:16. Hear, you who have held the earth so long! Behold what I announce to you before you begin to disappear: 2 Esdras 11:17. no one after you will rule so long as you, and not even half as long. 15–17. The author draws attention to the unusual longevity of the second king as an exceptional phenomenon in the history of the fourth beast of Daniel. For the first time the riddle was properly solved by Fabricius (Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti, II, 275), who saw here an indication of Octavian Augustus. Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Eutropius count the years of his reign beginning with his election as first consul (43 BC–14 AD). Thus it comes to about 56 years. Flavius determines the duration of his rule at 57 and a half years, as he takes as the starting point the year of Caesar’s death. No Roman emperor until Constantine the Great reigned even for half this figure.

2 Esdras 11:18. And the third feather rose and exercised dominion, as the former, but it also disappeared. 2 Esdras 11:19. Thus it was with all the others: they ruled and then disappeared forever. 19. All the other wings on the right side of the eagle “reigned individually” (singulatim). This remark, as well as the serial count which the author applies to the first three wings, prompts one to see in the 12 large wings 12 representatives from Julius Caesar to Vespasian.

2 Esdras 11:20. I saw that from time to time from the right side other feathers rose in order to have dominion, and some of them attained to rule, but immediately disappeared; 2 Esdras 11:21. and others rose but did not obtain rule. 20–21. Since history knows only 9 Roman emperors during this period, it is evident that the remark concerning some wings represents usurpers or pretenders to the Roman throne applies also to the 12 main wings. In the Ethiopian translation indeed, in this place there is talk of large wings arranged on the left side of the eagle, whose turn comes after the disappearance of all the right wings. Most researchers support this reading (Van der Ulis. Dissertatio critica de Ezrae libra apocrypho, vulgo IV dicto. Amstelodami 1839. P. 61, 136, 182. Lucke, 197. Gutschmid, 247. Hilgenfeld. Messias Judaeorum, 87. Langen, 129. Gunkel, 391). In accordance with the significance which is attached to the right and left sides, the author places on the right 6 emperors from the house of Julius, under whom Rome was in a flourishing state, and on the left, the usurpers who followed them, whose appearance threatened Rome with destruction. Under the 6 right wings are indisputably understood: 1) Julius Caesar (60–44 BC), 2) Octavian Augustus (44 BC–14 AD). 3) Tiberius (14–37 AD). 4) Caius Caligula (37–41 AD), 5) Claudius (41–54 AD), and 6) Nero (54–68 AD). It is harder to decipher the 6 left wings. The simplest is the assumption of Gfrorer (84–85), Wieseler (270–271), Dilman (Herzogs Real-Encyklopedie. 1 Aufl. XII, 312), Kabish (113–114), Schürer (326–327), and Gunkel (345) that behind the 6 left or ill-fated wings are concealed three emperors who held the throne for only a few months after Nero: Galba (from April 6, 68 AD to January 15, 69 AD), Otho (from January 15 to April 17 of the same year) and Vitellius, overthrown by Vespasian (in December 69 AD), and three pretenders to the throne: Vindex, who raised a revolt against Nero (67 AD), which prepared the way for Galba’s enthronement, Nymphidius, who vainly tried to incite the praetorian guards to revolt against Galba, and finally Piso, killed together with Galba at the moment when the latter was about to proclaim him his co-ruler. Against this explanation there is only one objection, that in view of the division of wings adopted by the author into main and subordinate, it is hardly likely he could have assigned three pretenders to the throne, who suffered defeat, to the main wings. But if we take the point of view of the author, there will be nothing strange in his evaluation of historical figures. During the disturbances that tore the country after Nero’s death, the Jews avidly caught every rumor from court life which bore testimony to Rome’s proximity to destruction. Minor, almost forgotten by history seekers of power like Vindex, Nymphidius, and Piso could be represented under the symbol of large wings, since their claims played no small role in the beginning dissolution of the Roman Empire, and it cost Vespasian much effort to restore its former might.

2 Esdras 11:22. After this the twelve feathers ceased to appear, neither the two small ones; 2 Esdras 11:23. and nothing remained in the eagle’s body except the two resting heads and six small feathers. 2 Esdras 11:24. I saw, and behold, from the six small feathers two separated and remained under the head which was on the right side, and four remained in their place. 2 Esdras 11:25. Then the subwings attempted to rise and take rule; 2 Esdras 11:26. and behold, one rose up but immediately disappeared; 2 Esdras 11:27. and the others disappeared even more quickly than the former. 2 Esdras 11:28. And I saw: behold, the two remaining feathers also attempted to take rule. 2 Esdras 11:29. When they attempted this, one of the resting heads, which was the middle, awakened; and it was greater than the other two heads. 2 Esdras 11:30. And I saw that the other two heads united with it. 2 Esdras 11:31. And this head, turning with those who were united with it, devoured the two subwings which attempted to take rule. 22–31. To list by name those individuals to whom the author assigned a modest role as eight auxiliary wings appears impossible. Corrodi (207), Schürer (326), and Gunkel (345) attribute their appearance to the time of upheaval in 68–70 CE. These are provincial rulers, throne-seekers, and plain rebels who raised revolts for the sake of personal ambition. Their number could reach six. According to Gunkel’s view, the two last small wings transitioning under the middle head represent the rulers of Syria and Egypt, Mucianus and Tiberius Alexander, who contributed to Vespasian’s rise to power. Gfrorer (88–91), Wieseler (271–281), and Kabisch (164) suppose that a secondary place in the author’s broadly conceived picture belongs to the history of Judea. What strikes the eye is the arbitrariness with which Gfrorer and Kabisch select 4 kings from the house of Herod, adding to them 4 instigators of the last Jewish rebellion. Behind the first two small wings, disappearing simultaneously with the 12 large ones, according to their view, hide Herod the Great and Agrippa I; behind the 4 following ones the leaders of Jewish rebels Eleazar, John of Giscala, Simon bar Giora, and John the Idumean; and finally, behind the two small wings transitioning under the right head, the rulers of Judea contemporary with the Flavians, Agrippa II and his sister Berenice. The leaders of the zealots dreamed of separation from Rome, so that the designation of opposing or hostile wings suited them perfectly. All of them sought to rule, but this succeeded only briefly for them. The first two leaders perished by the hand of the Jews themselves; the next two were deprived of power by Vespasian. Wieseler perceives in the 8 small wings the members of the dynasty of Herod. Its founder Antipater and his son Herod the Great form the first group, ruling until the onset of the middle period; the reign of three children of Herod—Archelaus, Herod II Antipas, and Philip—and then Herod III, also bearing the name Agrippa I, covers the middle period; Agrippa II and Berenice hold sway at the very end. The transition of the two last wings under the right head precisely reproduces the relationship of Agrippa II and Berenice toward the house of Julius and the Flavians. They were confirmed on the throne by Claudius and Nero, but upon Vespasian’s accession came into the most friendly relations with the Flavians. Berenice was the lover of Titus and nearly became his wife. Agrippa II owed his standing with the Roman emperors to her influence. The behavior of both during the last Judean war gave the author reason to call them the worst of the small wings (pennacula pessima): they stood on Rome’s side. Despite greater coherence compared with what preceded it, Wieseler’s interpretation conflicts, however, with the text in many essential points. The prophet’s remark about the shortness of the reign of the small wings (XI:20, 25–31) and their disappearance with the speed of lightning applies entirely wrongly to the house of Herod: with the exception of Archelaus and Agrippa I all of them reigned for quite a long time. The text of the vision gives no grounds for considering the small wings as acting simultaneously with the large ones. On the contrary, the thought is clearly expressed here that the rule of the 6 small wings follows after the 12 large wings and precedes the awakening of the three heads. The last two auxiliary wings arise upon the disappearance of the third head. The subordinate position occupied by the small wings in relation to the large ones is not noted in the book, despite the author’s desire to indicate the difference between the two groups. The behavior of the middle head, devouring the fifth and sixth auxiliary wings, encounters no analogous event in the history of the house of Herod. Given this, Wieseler is forced contrary to the coherence of his system to refer this passage to two kings of Commagene Antiochus and his son Epiphanes. In alliance with the Parthians they struggled against Rome, but were overthrown by Vespasian. Since it is difficult to find a corresponding number of historical figures for the 12 main and 8 auxiliary wings, the thought emerged to somehow reduce this number in accordance with the data of universal history. Ewald (Geschichte des Volkes Israel. 3 Ausg. VII, p. 77–82) and Drummond (106–110) suppose that under the 8 auxiliary wings, as well as under the 3 heads, the same kings are depicted who previously found their place under the image of the 12 large wings. Their distinction in a separate group testifies only to the fact that the author, for the sake of thoroughness, evaluates them from different points of view. In the vision of the eagle there is discussion of only 12 Roman Caesars known to history beginning with Julius Caesar and ending with Domitian. The perpetrators of the fall of Jerusalem, in view of the importance of the role they played in the fate of Judea, are represented in the form of three heads of the eagle. The 8 auxiliary wings denote 8 emperors who ruled for less than 10 years. These are Caesar, Caligula, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. Moreover, the 12 Caesars, depending on the fortunate or unfortunate character of their rule, are arranged on the right or left side of the eagle. To the house of Julius, during which the Roman Empire reached extraordinary brilliance, the right side is assigned. The disappearance of the 12 large wings (XI:22) together with 2 small ones relates to the moment of Nero’s death. After him the empire, torn by civil wars, resembles a mutilated eagle, powerless to soar in the sky. By the two small wings that disappeared simultaneously with the large ones are meant Caesar and Caligula. A group of 4 small wings consists of Galba, overthrown from power soon after his accession (XI:26), Otho, who lost power with even greater speed (XI:27), Vitellius, and Vespasian. The chief difficulty arises when one tries to understand how Vespasian, depicted as the middle head, destroys among two small wings attempting to rule none other than himself. Ewald, in order to find a way out of this, supposes a corruption in the text, where supposedly it was about one of the two small wings. Drummond sees here a hint that the former Vespasian, who played a modest role as a small wing during the struggle with Vitellius, since he was recognized as emperor only in the East, after victory was as it were absorbed and disappeared without a trace in Vespasian, the great and victorious ruler of the whole empire. Two auxiliary wings, sheltering under the right head of the eagle, mean Titus and Domitian, acting jointly with their father. Vespasian, presented in the vision as the founder of the dynasty under the image of the middle head, could also be depicted as the right head, as more fortunate compared with his sons in the length of reign. At the same time the right head is the symbol of Domitian, and the left is Titus, who perished by the hand of his own brother. The fact that two small wings are not arranged under both extreme heads, but under one right one, and with it disappear (Vulgate), testifies probably to the fact that in Domitian, the murderer of Titus, the author saw the cause of the shortness and misfortunes of both his own and the preceding reign. Ewald’s and Drummond’s explanation completely ignores the chronological sequence which the author outlines in the rule of the large wings, auxiliary wings, and heads (XI:22; XII:2). With Corrodi (207–208) and Thomson (457) are included in the composition of the 12 large wings the 3 heads. Thomson even attempts to list by name the contenders for the Roman throne and usurpers corresponding to the 3 small wings of the eagle. These are the two Pompeys, father and son, Brutus and Cassius, Antony, Piso, Nymphidius, and Vindex. However, the chronological relation between the small and large wings, as well as the struggle between two small wings and the middle head of the eagle, are left unattended here. Langen (131–133) sees in the numerical data concerning large and small wings round numbers. In his opinion, the author, knowing Roman history as any other Jew (Gfrorer. I, 79), very superficially and not presenting to himself in the ancient period of the empire anything sufficiently clearly except the longevity of Augustus, could not care about accuracy. With the numbers he connected not historical but mystical significance, which was in circulation in apocalyptic literature. He noted only that there would be more legitimate emperors than contenders for the throne and usurpers. By the large wings the author meant 6 Caesars from the house of Julius; by the third and fourth auxiliary wings Galba and Otho; by the fifth and sixth usurpers who perished by Vespasian’s hand; and by the seventh Nerva. Langen’s supposition sharply conflicts with the interpretation of the prophet himself, where it is clearly stated first of 12 (XII:14), and then of 8 (XII:20) kings. Volkmar (338–358), Renan (365–366), Dillmann recently (Über das Adlergesicht in der Apokalypse des Esra. Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1888. p. 215–237), Wellhausen (241–245), and Clemen (242–243) suppose that the solution to the numerical data of the vision lies in the paired counting of wings, whereby each pair corresponds to one emperor. This reduces the number of Caesars to 10. In the history of the Roman Empire 6 pairs of large wings correspond to 6 Julius, 3 pairs of small wings ruling in the interregnum to Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, and the last pair of them, rising upon the disappearance of the right head, to Nerva. In favor of such an understanding they refer to the paired counting of small wings, which takes place in the book (XI:22, 27–31; XII:2, 20–21). Only a pair of wings arranged on both sides of the eagle was a completely successful symbol of a Roman Caesar. A bird can fly only on the necessary condition that both its wings are in action. In this symbol was felt a hint that the Roman emperor is the lord of East and West. For all its simplicity this explanation in many ways contradicts the text of the vision, and especially the interpretation attached to it. According to the latter, the 12 Kings, brought forth as 12 large wings, rule one after another (unus post unum, XII:14); in the same way 8 small wings correspond to 8 kings who will hold the throne for a very short time (XII:20). The paired counting of small wings is not maintained with such strictness as to extend it to the large wings (XI:26). The large wings, to which it is more natural to recognize a guiding significance in the explanation of the whole vision, are constantly counted singly: the author speaks of the accession of the first, second, and third of them (XI:12–13) and extends this law to the rest (XI:19). Given this Dillmann expressed the supposition that the interpretation of the vision was revised at the beginning of the 3rd century with the purpose of adapting Ezra’s prophecy to the events of 216 CE. Wellhausen (241–245) and Clemen (242–243) extend Dillmann’s opinion to the text of the vision itself. The striking agreement of all translations in those particulars of the vision and interpretation where they desire to see the work of later generations serves as the chief objection against them. Certainly all came from the pen of the author himself. The obscurity of the vision, as well as of the interpretation, is explained not by their revision in adaptation to the events of the beginning of the 3rd century, but by purely arbitrary corrections which were introduced by later copyists who did not understand the meaning hidden in them. 31. Vespasian seized the throne with the help of his sons. When they proclaimed him emperor, Titus took command of the armies in the east in his hands, while Domitian acted in his father’s favor in Rome itself.

2 Esdras 11:32. This head terrified all the earth and ruled over the inhabitants of the earth with great oppression, and held power on the earthly sphere more than all the wings that were. 2 Esdras 11:33. After that I saw that the middle head also suddenly disappeared, as did the wings; 2 Esdras 11:34. two heads remained, which in the same manner ruled over the earth and its inhabitants. 2 Esdras 11:35. And behold, the head on the right side devoured the one that was on the left. 35. By the left head is unquestionably meant Titus. His position on the throne was very precarious. Domitian constantly schemed against him (Suetonius. Titus, ch. 10). Upon his father’s death he declared that his brother was proclaimed emperor solely because of a forged will (Dio Cassius, LXVI, 26). When Titus died of fever, popular rumor accused Domitian of his death. According to the testimony of historians, the latter hastened to proclaim himself emperor while his brother was in agony. A rumor spread among the people that Domitian ordered Titus, who was dying, to be thrown into a box of snow in order to hasten his death (Dio Cassius. Ibid. Domitianus, 2). Other historians suspected that Titus was poisoned by his brother, and from Titus’s own words before death one can conclude that he suspected Domitian (Aurelius Victor. Caesares, ch. 10–11). According to the Sibylline Books Titus perished by a two-edged sword (XII, 120–123). In the same way in the interpretation of Ezra himself it is said that the sword of one of the Caesars, represented in the vision under the image of the right head, will devour the other (XII:27–28). In this detail the author appears not as a prophet, but as a historian writing after Titus’s death. Therefore one cannot recognize as convincing the opinion of Corrodi (207–208) and Ewald (76, 81–82), who attribute the appearance of the book to the reign of Titus (79–81), around the year 80.

2 Esdras 11:36. And I heard a voice saying to me: look before you, and ponder what you see. 2 Esdras 11:37. And I saw: behold, like a lion bursting out of the forest and roaring, he uttered a human voice to the eagle and said: 37. The representation of the Messiah as a lion was inspired by Jacob’s prophecy about Judah, from whose line the Messiah was to come (Gen 49:9; Rev 5:5).

2 Esdras 11:38. hear what I will say to you and what the Most High will say to you: 2 Esdras 11:39. are you not the one remaining from among the four animals which I set to rule in my age, so that through them the end of those times might come? 2 Esdras 11:40. And the fourth of them came, defeated all the beasts that were before, and held the age in great dread and the whole world in dreadful oppression, and with the most grievous subjection ruled over those subject to it, and for such a long time dwelt upon the earth with cunning. 39–40. The author here means Daniel’s (VII:3–27) vision of 4 animals coming out of the depths of the sea. The vision of the eagle, according to the author’s own words, explains only what was not explained to the prophet Daniel (XII:11). In the fourth Danielic monarchy contemporary Jewry saw the symbol of Rome (Flavius. Antiquities, X, 9–11; On the Jewish War, VI, 5, 4; IV, 6, 3).

2 Esdras 11:41. You judged the earth not in justice; 2 Esdras 11:42. you oppressed the meek, injured the peaceful, loved liars, destroyed the dwellings of those who brought benefit, and razed the walls of those who did you no harm. 41–42. The cruel treatment of Judea by Rome, particularly by the house of the Flavians, is depicted. In the destruction of dwellings and razing of city walls echoes the second destruction of Jerusalem. This was the height of injustice: the meek and peaceful inhabitants of Judea submitted willingly, paid tribute, and caused harm to none.

2 Esdras 11:43. And your injury went up to the Most High, and your arrogance to the Mighty One. 43. Cf. Isa 37:29.

2 Esdras 11:44. And the Most High looked upon the times of your arrogance, and behold, they have ended, and the measure of your evils has been fulfilled. 44. In the manuscripts this passage has a different meaning. “And the Most High looked upon His own times, and behold they have ended, and the ages have reached fullness” (complete sunt). The author wishes to say by this that the period appointed in the Divine plans for the development of evil upon the earth has expired (cf. Gal 4:4).

2 Esdras 11:45. Therefore vanish, you eagle, with your terrible wings, with your vile feathers, with your evil heads, with your cruel talons, and with all your worthless body, 2 Esdras 11:46. so that all the earth may rest and be freed from your violence, and may hope for the judgment and mercy of its Creator.