Chapter Twelve

The disappearance of the last head of the eagle and the destruction of all of it in flame (1–3). Ezra’s prayer for the interpretation of the vision (4–9). The interpretation of the vision (10–36). The commandment of God to write all that has been seen, but to keep it secret from the people (37–38). The promise of a new revelation (39). The requests of the people who came for Ezra to return to the city to guide the life of the captives (40–45) and Ezra’s consent to this (46–51).

2 Esdras 12:1. When the lion spoke these words to the eagle, I saw, 2 Esdras 12:2. that the head that remained no longer appeared with the four wings that went over to it and rose up to rule, but whose kingdom was weak and full of tumult. 2. In the Vulgate unexpectedly instead of two (XI:24; XII:29) there is mention of four small wings that went over to the right head. This error resulted from an omission. In the manuscripts of the Latin text at this point there is first discussion of the disappearance of 4 small wings, and then of the two wings that took shelter under the right head. Just as before, while noting the destruction of the 12 large wings (XI:22), the author in passing mentions the two auxiliary wings that disappeared with them, so now, having recounted the destruction of the third head, he appends a note about the destruction of the 4 small wings attached to the 3 heads, which did not change their place. In the eastern translations the thought is expressed with greater clarity. “And behold the head that remained alive no longer appeared. And two wings rose up that had gone over to it, and rose up to rule, and their rule was weak and full of rebellion.” Since the third head perishes from the hand of the Messiah, while the coming of the Messiah is expected by the author only in the future, one must recognize that the book appeared in the last years of Domitian’s reign (61 CE–96 CE), around 96 CE. Domitian left no successors after him. The author, who had lived through the troubled time from Nero’s death to the Flavians’ accession to power, sensed the renewal of trouble and depicted in the form of two auxiliary wings ruling after the third head probable contenders for the throne upon Domitian’s death. Scholars assign the composition of the prophetic book of Ezra to not later than 96 CE: Gfrorer (I, 88), Dillmann (Herzogs Real-Encyklopedie V. XII. 1st edition and 2nd edition, 355), Wieseler (281–283), Bissell (644), Reuß (736), Schürer (328), Wellhausen (241–245), Gunkel (352), and Lagrange (497, 498, 500). Other scholars, such as Volkmar (352–354), Langen (130–134), Renan (366–369), Hausrath (84–86), Rosenthal, Zöckler (446–447), Dillmann in his last work (Über das Adlergesicht in der Apokalypse des Esra) and Clemen (242–243) incline to the view that the author lived through Domitian’s death, who fell by the sword of the praetorians (Suetonius, Domitianus, 27. Dio Cassius, LVII, 15–17), since the interpretation of the vision entirely agrees with history in speaking of the death of the last head from the sword (XII:27–28). The decline of power and tumults characterizing the rule of the two last auxiliary wings were indeed strongly felt under Nerva (96 CE–98 CE). A decrepit old man, relying not on the army but on peaceful citizens, powerless to breathe life into the decaying Greco-Roman empire. Finally, in October 97 CE a mutiny of the praetorians broke out, after which Nerva to save the empire from turmoil invited Trajan to himself as co-ruler. Not long before this the author composed his book. However the text of the vision itself decidedly speaks against such a view. The appearance of the Messiah, after whose accusatory speech the last head disappears, is merely expected by the author in the very near future. For an allegorical understanding of it in the sense of obviousness to each of swift retribution for the blood spilled by fratricide (Volkmar) there are no grounds. Even more strange appears the view of Lücke (in the first edition of his book, 1832) and Baldensperger, who push back the writing of the book to the reign of Trajan. In his reign could not arise the thought of the near destruction of the Roman eagle.

2 Esdras 12:3. And I saw, and behold they disappeared, and the whole body of the eagle burned, and the earth became terrified, and I from anxiety, confusion of mind, and great fear awoke and said to my spirit: 3. In the following vision the enemies of the Messiah are destroyed by flame coming forth from His mouth (XIII:10–11). With the prophet Daniel (VII:1) the fourth beast is given to burning.

2 Esdras 12:4. behold, you have caused this to me in that you search the ways of the Most High. 4. The author is aware that the chief reason for the granting to him of the terrible vision which he has just contemplated is his inquisitive mind, which eagerly strives to penetrate the ways of the Most High. Cf. Dan 7:15-16.

2 Esdras 12:5. Behold, my heart is still trembling, and my spirit is very exhausted, and there is no strength in me from the great fear by which I am struck in this night. 2 Esdras 12:6. And now I pray to the Most High to strengthen me until the end. 2 Esdras 12:7. And I said: Master Lord! if I have found favor in your eyes, if you have found me righteous before many, and if my prayer has truly come before your face, 7. Cf. VI:32.

2 Esdras 12:8. strengthen me and show me, your servant, the meaning of this terrible vision, to fully comfort my soul: 8. The prophet asks God to comfort his troubled soul fully by explaining the meaning of his dream. The vision of the woman, depicting the glorious future of Zion, comforted him only in part. The main question of how the yoke of the Romans was to be overthrown is revealed only in this vision.

2 Esdras 12:9. for you have judged me worthy to show me the last times. And He said to me: 2 Esdras 12:10. This is the meaning of this vision: 2 Esdras 12:11. the eagle which you saw coming up from the sea is the kingdom shown in the vision of Daniel, your brother; 11. XI:39.

2 Esdras 12:12. but what was not explained to him is now explained to you. 12. The interpretation of the vision is not distinguished by clarity. A similar feature is strongly felt in the book of the prophet Daniel, which served as a model for the author. This circumstance prompts, in the analysis of the vision, to assign the interpretation only a secondary place, especially in view of certain contradictions noticed between the interpretation and the text of the vision itself.

2 Esdras 12:13. Behold, the days are coming when a kingdom more dreadful than all kingdoms that have been before it will rise on the earth. 13. XI:40–43.

2 Esdras 12:14. In it twelve kings will rule, one after another. 14. XI:1.

2 Esdras 12:15. The second of them will begin to rule, and will hold power for a more prolonged time than the other twelve. 15. XI:13–17.

2 Esdras 12:16. This is the meaning of the twelve wings which you saw. 2 Esdras 12:17. And what you heard, the voice speaking, coming not from the heads of the eagle, but from the midst of his body, 2 Esdras 12:18. means that after the time of that kingdom there will be great disturbances, and the kingdom will be in danger of falling; but it will not fall at that time and will be restored to its original state. 17–18. XI:7–10. The Latin translation refers the troubles threatening Rome with falling to the time after the rule of the 12 large wings (post tempus regni illius). According to the eastern translations they take place during their rule (inter tempus regni illius). Evidently the author is hinting at the upheavals tearing the empire after Nero’s death until Vespasian’s accession to power. The latter restored Rome to its former greatness.

2 Esdras 12:19. And what you saw were eight small wings joined with the wings, this means, 2 Esdras 12:20. that there will arise in the kingdom eight kings, whose times will be light and their years swift, and two of them will perish. 2 Esdras 12:21. When the middle time approaches, four will remain until then, when its end shall be near; and two will remain until the end. 19–21. XI:11, 22–31; XII:2–3. The punctuation should be corrected. The phrase “when the middle time approaches” refers to the first two small wings. By “middle time” (tempus medium) is meant the period of interregnum spoken of just now (XII:18, according to the Ethiopic and Armenian translations). The four further wings precede the 3 heads (XI:24–31) and the last two follow them.

2 Esdras 12:22. And what you saw were three heads at rest, this means, 22. XI:4.

2 Esdras 12:23. that in the last days of the kingdom the Most High will raise up three kings, and they will subdue many others, and they will rule over the earth and its inhabitants 23. XI:32. The Latin translation suffers from obscurity because the Greek word βασιλείς (kings) was taken for βασιλείας (kingdoms). The eastern texts reproduce the author’s thought in this form: “In the very last days of it the Most High will raise up three kings, and they will introduce many innovations in it and will rule over the earth.”

2 Esdras 12:24. with greater oppression than all that went before; therefore they are called the heads of the eagle, 2 Esdras 12:25. because they will fulfill his evils and will put an end to him. 25. XI:44 (Latin manuscripts). The author explains why for three kings, whose rule will entail the end of the fourth world monarchy, the symbol of the heads of the eagle is chosen. They “will recapitulate” (recapitulabunt – a translation of the Greek ἀνακεφαλαιώσουσι) the evils of their predecessors. This term has an apocalyptic character. According to Jewish eschatology at the end of the world the scattered evil, as well as good, will be gathered together and will reach complete fulfillment. In the eyes of the Jews all foreign rule was evil. This was felt even more strongly after the destruction of Jerusalem and the burning of the temple by Titus (70 CE). Religious feeling of the Jews was most offended by the cult of emperors, completely developed among the Flavians. Upon his death Vespasian was declared a god. Titus established for this purpose a whole college of priests bearing the name of the Flavials (Flaviales). Titus also was numbered among the gods immediately after his death. Domitian even during his lifetime declared himself a god, permitting Roman citizens to call him dominus and deus noster (Plinius. Panegyricus II. Suetonius. Domitianus 4, 5, 13). The didrachma, which had been paid by Jews to their temple, after its burning had to be given to the Capitoline temple, restored by the Flavians after the fire. Under Domitian beside it a new temple was built dedicated to the house of the Flavians (gens Flavia).

2 Esdras 12:26. And what you saw, that the great head no longer appeared, means that one of the kings will die on his bed, nevertheless with torment, 26. XI:33. The details of the disappearance of the first head correspond entirely to the circumstances of Vespasian’s death. To him the book’s expression that he “will die on his bed, but with torments” applies fully. Vespasian died suddenly from dysentery (Suetonius. Vespasianus 24. Dio Cassius, LXVI, 17. Aurelius Victor, 9). The Jews thought that he perished from the same tormenting illness which brought Antiochus Epiphanes to the grave, and saw in this the avenging hand of Providence.

2 Esdras 12:27. and the two remaining ones will be devoured by the sword; 2 Esdras 12:28. the sword of one will devour the other, but he also in the course of time will die by the sword. 27–28. XI:35. The destruction of the third head by the sword expresses only the general thought that Domitian will meet a similar violent death for his fratricide. The Messiah kills him by the action of His speech.

2 Esdras 12:29. And what you saw, two small wings moved to the head on the right side, 29. XI:24.

2 Esdras 12:30. these are those whom the Most High has preserved for the end of the kingdom, that is, the kingdom meager and full of confusion. 30. XII:2 (according to the eastern translation).

2 Esdras 12:31. The lion which you saw rising out of the forest and roaring, speaking to the eagle and rebuking it in all its unrighteousness with all the words which you heard, 31. XI:37–46.

2 Esdras 12:32. this is the Anointed One, preserved by the Most High for the end against them and their evils, who will rebuke them and present before them their oppression. 32. In the Vulgate and the Slavic translation instead of the Anointed One (Unctus) there is mention of wind (ventus). The error is explained by the similarity in the spelling of the corresponding Latin words. The copyist pictured the Messiah as a wind rising from the sea and sweeping the evildoers from the face of the earth (XIII:27). In all eastern translations the origin of the Messiah from the seed of David is noted.

2 Esdras 12:33. He will set them for judgment of the living, and when he has convicted them, he will punish them. 2 Esdras 12:34. But He by His mercy will free the remnant of My people, those who have been preserved in My borders, and will make them glad until the end comes, the day of judgment of which I have told you from the beginning. 34. After the fourth Danielic monarchy’s destruction, God bestows His mercies upon the survivors of the trials among the Hebrews: a four-hundred-year Kingdom of the Messiah is revealed (VII:27–29). The historical interpretation of the eagle vision presented above, as applied to the Roman Empire during the period from Julius Caesar to Domitian, is now the commonly accepted view (Corrodi, Lücke in the 1st edition of his work, Gfrerer, Dillmann, Volkmar, Ewald, Langen, Wieseler, Keil, Hausrath, Renan, Drummond, Reuss, Bissell, Rosenthal, Baldensperger, Zöckler, Thomson, Wellhausen, Schürer, Gunkel, Lagrange, and Bertholet). All other interpretations fall considerably short of it, allowing a whole series of contradictions to the vision in essential details. Shavrov (114–133) applies the eagle vision to the Syro-Egyptian monarchy that arose after the death of Alexander the Great. Its yoke weighed upon Israel until the Maccabees, when Judea obtained independence. According to his view, the prophetic Book of Ezra appeared during the time of Simon the Just (143 B.C.–125 B.C.). Shavrov justifies the union of two kingdoms in the image of the eagle by claiming that both were equally hostile toward Palestine and each attempted in turn to subjugate it. Under the 12 large wings are understood 7 Syrian kings: 1) Seleucus I Nicator (312–232), 2) Antiochus I Soter (282–261), 3) Antiochus II Theos (261–246), 4) Seleucus II Callinicus (246–225), 5) Seleucus III Ceraunus (225–231), 6) Antiochus III the Great (223–187) and 7) Seleucus IV Philopator (187–176), and 5 Egyptian: 1) Ptolemy I Lagi (324–284), 2) Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284–246), 3) Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–221), 4) Ptolemy IV Philopator (221–204) and Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204–180). The prophet’s remark that some of the 12 large wings, though they rose, did not obtain power (XI:21), indicates that they did not possess Palestine. The Syrian kingdom, which had greater success in the struggle to possess Palestine, occupies the right side of the eagle in the vision; the Egyptian kingdom, the left. Behind the second wing, distinguished by its longevity, is concealed Ptolemy Lagi (324–284). The three heads of the eagle are Antiochus IV Epiphanes (176–164), Antiochus V Eupator (164–162) and Demetrius I Soter (162–150). Under Antiochus Epiphanes, the second Jerusalem temple was converted into a sanctuary of Zeus. Antiochus IV died from a tormenting disease (XII:26). After him, claimants to the throne appeared in Demetrius Soter, son of Seleucus Philopator, and Antiochus Eupator, son of the deceased. The first defeated the second and slew him with his sword (XI:35), and he himself was later killed by Alexander Balas (XII:28). Under the form of 8 small wings are depicted persons who stood in hostile relations to the 12 kings listed above. In two of them one can see Alexander’s generals, Antigonus and his son Demetrius. Both waged war against Seleucus Nicator and Ptolemy Lagi and at one time possessed Palestine (XI:22). The following 4 denote Heliodorus, who poisoned Seleucus Philopator in order to seize the throne, Demetrius Soter, depicted besides as the symbol of the right head, and two sons of Ptolemy Epiphanes, Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–146) and Ptolemy VII Physcon (146–117). Antiochus Epiphanes, taking advantage of his nephews’ minority, seized Egypt and deprived it of the possibility of rivalry (XI:24–31). Behind the two final subordinate wings are concealed: the pretender Alexander Balas (150–145), who claimed to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and Demetrius II Nicator (145–144). Under them Syria lost its former importance, and in 143 B.C. Judea obtained independence. The leader of the people was recognized as the high priest Simon, depicted in the vision as a lion, and also as the Anointed One. Shavrov’s interpretation encompasses two monarchies, whereas the vision speaks of one (XI:39–40; XII:11). As a result, Shavrov is forced to allow the simultaneous rule of two kings, a Syrian and an Egyptian, whereas the Book of Ezra says that 12 kings will rule one after another (XI:8; XII:14). The details given in the Book of Ezra about the duration of the second large wing’s rule (XI:16) are left without attention by Shavrov. Indeed, Ptolemy Lagi did not rule nearly twice as long as Seleucus Nicator. The middle head’s consumption of the fifth and sixth subordinate wings, Shavrov understands only in an allegorical sense. Simon the Just was far from playing the major role that is attributed to the Messiah in the vision. There could be no question of the final destruction of the Syrian and Egyptian monarchies in his time. Hilgenfeld (Judische Apokalyptik, 217–221; Esra und Daniel, 43–57; Messias Judaeorum. 85–95) acknowledges that under the fourth Danielic monarchy can only be understood Greco-Macedonian dominion. It ended in the middle of the 1st century B.C., when Egypt and Syria were conquered by Rome. In this, a sign of the future end was discerned. In the form of three heads are depicted members of the Second Triumvirate. Julius Caesar is understood under the middle one, Antony under the left and Octavian under the right. The book’s words about the death of the middle head on a bed but with torments indicate that Caesar’s death occurred not in war but in peacetime. Similarly, death by the sword means only defeat in war, since Antony remained alive after his defeat by Octavian at Actium (30 B.C.). To 30 B.C. is attributed the appearance of the prophetic Book of Ezra. Hilgenfeld reveals no less arbitrariness with respect to the 12 large and 8 small wings. First (Judische Apokalyptik), he saw in them the Ptolemies who ruled the Egyptian monarchy. The first group consists of: 1) Alexander the Great (336–323), 2) Ptolemy I Lagi (323–283), 3) Ptolemy II Philadelphus (385–247), 4) Ptolemy III Euergetes (247–222), 5) Ptolemy IV Philopator (222–206), 6) Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204–181), 7) Ptolemy VI Philometor (181–146), 8) Ptolemy VII Physcon (146–117), 9) Cleopatra I (130–89), 10) Ptolemy VII Latirus (117–107, 86–81), 11) Ptolemy IX (Alexander I 107–69), 12) Ptolemy X (Alexander II 81), 13) Ptolemy XI (Alexander III 80) and 14) Ptolemy XII Auletes or Dionysius the Younger (80–51). Ptolemy X and Ptolemy XI, who reigned for only a few days, should be assigned to the small wings, disappearing simultaneously with the 12 large ones. Under two small wings transferred under the right head are probably understood two sons of Physcon, Ptolemy I Apion, who ruled until 96 B.C. Cyrene and Ptolemy I, who ruled until 58 B.C. Cyprus. Both their possessions were seized by the Romans. The right head in this place is only a symbol of Roman power. Behind the following 4 subordinate wings are concealed: the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes Berenice (58–55) and his son Ptolemy XIII (51–47), then Ptolemy XIV (47–44) and Cleopatra II (51–31). Under Cleopatra, in 47 B.C., Egypt became a Roman province. In this interpretation, the artificiality with which the rulers of Cyrene and Cyprus are included among the small wings, solely in order to make up the missing number, is particularly striking. Feeling the weakness of this interpretation himself, Hilgenfeld (Esra und Daniel; Messias Judaeorum) applied the same method to the house of the Seleucids. But since here there were more names than needed, he was forced to exclude some. In all such cases, he relies on the lists of Syrian kings given by various historians. The Seleucids are listed by him in this order: 1) Alexander the Great (336–323), 2) Seleucus I Nicator (323–280), 3) Antiochus I Soter (280–261), 4) Antiochus II Theos (261–246), 5) Seleucus II Callinicus (246–229), 6) Seleucus III Ceraunus (227–224), 7) Antiochus III the Great (234–187), 8) Seleucus IV Philopator (187–175), 9) Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–163), 10) Demetrius I Soter (162–150), 11) Demetrius II Nicator (146–138, 128–125) and 12) Antiochus VII Sidetes (137–128) correspond to the 12 large wings. To them are adjoined two small wings – Antiochus VIII Grypus (125–96) and Antiochus IX Cyzicenus (113–95), constantly at war with one another. Into the middle time (tempos medium, XII:21) between the disappearance of the large and two small wings and the awakening of the heads falls the reign of Grypus’ son, Seleucus VI (95–93), son of Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, Antiochus X Eusebes (93), another son of Grypus, Demetrius Eucherus and, finally, the son of Eusebes, Antiochus XIII Asiaticus, or a son of Grypus, Philip. In 64 B.C., the Seleucids lost the throne forever. In this sense should be understood the book’s words about the two small wings being consumed by the middle head. The two small wings, separated from the rest, denote a cadet line of the Seleucids that outlived the destruction of Antony; this is a son of Grypus, Philip, to whom in 57 B.C. they offered to occupy the Egyptian throne, the husband of Berenice, Seleucus Kybiosactes, who took part in the rule, or the brother of Antiochus XIII Asiaticus. One can also see here an indication of the kings of Commagene, Antiochus and Mithridates, who numbered themselves among the Seleucids. The very complexity of the devices to which Hilgenfeld is forced to resort speaks against his opinion. It is difficult to recognize the author to be so knowledgeable a historian as Hilgenfeld represents him to be. And it is also incomprehensible why the author, who lived in Egypt according to his view, should undertake to write the history of the Syrian monarchy. In both of Hilgenfeld’s theories are not maintained: the unity of the monarchy depicted under the symbol of the eagle, the longevity of the second wing, more than twice exceeding the time of rule of its successors, and the book’s exact information about the death of the first and second head, in no way admitting of allegorical interpretation. Lawrence (Gfrorer. Prophetae Veteres Pseudepigraphi, 162–166), Van-der-Vlis (179–189), Lücke (in the 2nd edition of his book 196–209) apply the eagle vision to the history of Rome from Romulus to Julius Caesar. Under the three heads they understand Sulla, Pompey and Caesar. Sulla, represented under the image of the middle head, died in accordance with the Book of Ezra from a tormenting disease (XII:26). In the book’s remark that the right head kills the left (XII:26), there is contained a hint of Julius Caesar’s victory over Pompey. The Book of the Prophet Ezra was written, according to their view, either during Caesar’s life (Lücke), or soon after his assassination (Van-der-Vlis), or, finally, after Antony’s death, between 28 and 25 B.C. (Lawrence). Earlier, this view was expressed by Zeller (Vorzfugliche theologische Briefe. Ipsiae, 1781. Vol. I. P. 134–195) and Vogel (Commentatio de conjectures usu in crisi Novi Testamenti. Altonij, 1795. P. 50–51), who did not attempt to explain the vision as a whole. Lawrence selects from Roman history during the period from the foundation of Rome to Caesar 20 names of kings and seekers of power and divides them into 2 groups. In the first of them, corresponding to the 12 large wings, are included 7 Roman kings: 1) Romulus, 2) Numa Pompilius, 3) Tullus Hostilius, 4) Ancus Marcius, 5) Tarquinius I the Elder, 6) Servius Tullius and 7) Tarquinius II the Proud, and then five greater seekers of the throne: the decemvir Appius Claudius, Spurius Maelius, Marcus Manlius, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus. The 8 small wings are made up of persons who attempted to seize power: tribune Sulpicius, Marius the Elder, Cinna, Marius the Younger, Carbo, Sertorius, Lepidus and Antony. Van-der-Vlis and Lücke eliminate the union of kings and defenders of the republican order in the explanation of the large wings, which Lawrence allowed. They assert that the numerical data of the vision cannot be given strict significance. According to the first, the author of the prophetic Book of Ezra increased Daniel’s number of horns of the fourth beast in order to show that all rulers of Rome are more than 11. In his choice of the number he used, he could have been guided by the structure of an eagle’s wings. Ancient ornithology counted 6 groups of feathers in each eagle wing, governing its flight. The author combined with his number the idea of a significant, though not infinite, quantity of Roman rulers and at the same time of the fullness of their power. In explaining particulars, Van-der-Vlis replaces the numbers in the eagle vision with numbers from Daniel’s vision of the fourth beast. He accepts 11 large wings. The disappearance of two small wings simultaneously with them would testify that the author knew not all Roman rulers, but only 9. The remaining 6 small wings hint at Marius the Elder, Cinna, Marius the Younger, Carbo, Antony and Lepidus. Lücke brings the number of large wings close to the legend of the auspices, which Romulus and Remus used when founding the city. These were 12 ravens. Lücke allows the possibility that under the last of the small wings is understood Octavian before his proclamation as emperor. The chief deficiency of Lawrence’s, Van-der-Vlis’ and Lücke’s theory is that the world-historical character of the fourth Danielic monarchy is not maintained. Before the conquest of Palestine by Pompey, Roman history presented no interest for a Hebrew. To explain the fullness with which the author depicts the history of Rome during its darkest period, one must assume that he studied it from Livy. One cannot recognize the author to be so well-acquainted with this history as to imitate the Book of Daniel in its numerical data: the author treats his model quite freely, omitting from it the most important detail, the appearance of an eleventh horn that destroys all the rest. For the interpretation of the destruction of the left head by the sword in the sense of Pompey’s defeat in war there is no foundation. Gutschmid (II, 240–258) and Le-Hir (Ler-Hir. Etudes bibliques, I, 184–192) extend the eagle vision to the history of the Roman Empire from Julius Caesar to the beginning of the 3rd century. Earlier this view was expressed by Corrodi (cited Laurence. Gfrorer. Prophetae Veteres Pseudepigraphe 161) and Hartwig (Apologie der Apokalypse. Vol. IV. Chemnitz, 1783. P. 211–212). Under the three heads they understand Septimius Severus (193–211) and his two sons, Geta (211–212) and Caracalla (211–217). Caracalla killed Geta, with whom they both came to power after their father’s death, but he himself was later killed by Macrinus (XII:27–28). The remaining emperors Gutschmid and Le-Hir divide into two groups depending on the length of their reigns. The 6 large wings on the right side of the eagle correspond to 6 emperors from the house of the Julii; under the form of large wings lying on the left are presented Vespasian (69–79), Domitian (81–96), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180). The first 2 small wings signify Titus (79–81) and Nerva (96–98), the next 4 Commodus (180–192), Pertinax (193), Didius Julianus (193) and Pescennius Niger (193–194) and, finally, the last 2, the slayer of Caracalla, Macrinus (216–217) and his son, Diadumenianus, killed in 218 B.C. Shortly before this event, the eagle vision was composed. It represents a later interpolation in the book, which appeared, according to Hilgenfeld, in 31 B.C. Le-Hir introduces minor changes into his predecessor’s list. He unites the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus following the example of Clement of Alexandria. In his place, he names Clodius Albinus, who was co-ruler of Septimius Severus (194–197). The unsoundness of this view flows from the fact that the eagle vision constitutes an essential part of the book, closely connected with the preceding vision of the woman and the subsequent vision of the man. In the selection of names, one senses the same arbitrariness which characterizes Hilgenfeld’s painstaking constructions – Galba, Otho and Vitellius are completely omitted as unnecessary. Gaius Caligula is placed among the large wings on the right side, although he occupied the throne for only 3 years. Gutschmid violates the criterion he adopted, by which emperors are assigned to large or small wings, by assigning Commodus to the small wings contrary to his twelve-year reign. The explanation under consideration is not consistent with the chronological indications given in the vision about the small wings. Titus and Nerva ruled not before the time of interregnum (XII:21), but then already, when Vespasian had secured the peace of the empire. The remark about the participation of the right and left heads in the consumption of the third pair of small wings does not apply to Geta and Caracalla. Both took not the least part in the deposition by their father of Didius Julianus and Pescennius Niger. Assigning the origin of the entire book to the beginning of the 3rd century (Hartwig) is prevented by the circumstance that Clement of Alexandria, who died in 217 B.C., cites an extract from the prophetic Book of Ezra as a divinely inspired work. From this it is evident that it appeared long before the third century, when the enthusiasm for eschatology had already vanished, and such a work could not have attracted the attention of readers.

2 Esdras 12:35. Such is the dream you have seen, and such is its meaning. 2 Esdras 12:36. You alone were worthy to know this secret of the Most High. 2 Esdras 12:37. All that you have seen, write in a book and place in a hidden place; 2 Esdras 12:38. and teach this to the wise from your people, whose hearts you know capable of receiving and keeping these mysteries. 37–38. The revelation granted to Ezra was not to become the possession of all the people, since far from everyone is capable of understanding it. The prophet is commanded to perpetuate it by committing it to writing, and to place the book in a hidden place. A similar example occurs twice in the Book of Daniel (VIII:26; XII:4). A characteristic feature of all apocalyptic literature is a certain veil of mystery with which the book was enveloped. Since each apocalypse was usually attributed to a person who lived several centuries, and often even thousands of years ago, it had to be explained to the reader in a more or less plausible manner why the book had been completely unknown for so long and only recently put into circulation. There grew up the conviction that revelations about the last days of the world were intended only for the wise from the people, who preserved them in deep secrecy from others, or were to lie in a hidden place until the very last time.

2 Esdras 12:39. And you remain here yet seven days, so that it may be shown to you what the Most High is pleased to show you. And he departed from me. 2 Esdras 12:40. When after the passing of seven days all the people heard that I had not returned to the city, all gathered together from the smallest to the greatest and, coming to me, said to me: 2 Esdras 12:41. Why have you sinned against us? And in what way have you offended us, that you, abandoning us, sit in this place? 41. Just as after the first vision the leader of the people Phaltiel comes to the prophet (V:16–19), so now all the people from young to old gathers to Ezra and begs him to return to the city. The whole introductory episode characterizes the high role of Ezra for the Jews in captivity. He is the only prophet, and the people would have preferred to become the victims of the fire that consumed Jerusalem rather than lose him.

2 Esdras 12:42. You alone of all the people have remained to us, as a bunch of grapes from the vineyard, as a lamp in a dark place and as a haven and a ship saved from a storm. 42. The text of the Vulgate requires correction. “You alone have remained to us of all the prophets, as a bunch of grapes from the vineyard, as a lamp in a dark place and as a harbor for a ship saved from a storm.” The significance of the prophet is compared with the significance of a harbor, where a ship caught in a storm finds for itself a safe refuge and salvation.

2 Esdras 12:43. Is not the suffering that has befallen us enough? 2 Esdras 12:44. If you abandon us, it would have been better for us to have burned when Zion burned. 2 Esdras 12:45. For we are not better than those who died there. And they wept with a loud cry. Answering them, I said: 44–45. The author remembers the burning of Jerusalem by Titus and expresses reverence for its defenders who perished in the flames.

2 Esdras 12:46. Have hope, Israel, and do not grieve, house of Jacob; 2 Esdras 12:47. for the Most High remembers you, and the Mighty One has not forgotten you in your affliction. 2 Esdras 12:48. And I have not abandoned you nor departed from you, but have come to this place to pray for the desolate Zion and to ask mercy for your degraded sanctuary. 2 Esdras 12:49. Now go each to your home, and I will come to you after these days. 2 Esdras 12:50. And the people went, as I said to them, to the city, 2 Esdras 12:51. and I remained in the field for seven days, as was commanded to me, and I was nourished in those days only by the flowers of the field, and grass was my food.